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Reading trees: A quick review Many phylogenies also include an outgroup — a taxon outside the group of interest. Hence, the outgroup stems from the base of the tree. An outgroup can give you a sense of where on the bigger tree of life the main group of organisms falls. evolution.berkeley.edu /evolibrary/article/phylogenetics_02   (373 words)

Outgroup homogeneity bias - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia According to the outgroup homogeneity bias, individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups. The outgroup homogeneity bias was found between groups such as "men" and "women" who obviously interact frequently. The implications of this effect to stereotyping is obvious, and it may be related to confirmation bias. en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias   (261 words)

Evolution - The reconstruction of phylogeny The method of outgroup comparison means looking at a closely related species which is known to be phylogenetically outside the group of species we are studying. In the figure, if the character in the outgroup a is ancestral in the group of species 1 - 4, there must have been at least one evolutionary event in the phylogeny: a transition from a to a' before the ancestor of species 2 and 4. Outgroup comparison cannot be used when we are absolutely ignorant, but if we know something about the phylogeny of a group (for example that amphibians are not amniotes, but are closely related to them) we can build on that knowledge to find out more (in this case, more about the phylogeny within the amniotes). www.blackwellpublishing.com /ridley/tutorials/The_reconstruction_of_phylogeny13.asp   (463 words)

Outgroup - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For a use of the term in sociology see here. In cladistics, whenever three monophyletic groups of organisms are compared, and two of them are more closely related to each other than either is to the third, the third group is known as the outgroup. The evolutionary conclusion from this is that the outgroup branched from the parent group before the other two groups branched from each other. en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Outgroup   (100 words)

UnderstandingPrejudice.org: The Psychology of Prejudice A close cousin of assimilation is the "outgroup homogeneity effect." In the language of social psychology, an "ingroup" is a group to which someone belongs, and an "outgroup" is a group to which the person does not belong (hence, one person's ingroup may be another person's outgroup, and vice versa). As a result, outgroup members are at risk of being seen as interchangeable or expendable, and they are more likely to be stereotyped. Later research on outgroup homogeneity found that the effect is strongest when the ingroup and outgroup are enduring, real-life groups (rather than groups created artificially in laboratory experiments), and when the ingroup is large (Mullen & Hu, 1989). www.understandingprejudice.org /apa/english/page6.htm   (519 words)

CRISP Volume 10 No. 2 Accordingly, we predicted that outgroup derogation but not ingroup favoritism would be the specific locus of intergroup differentiation (Brewer, 1979) mediating the effect of ingroup identification on the self-directed negative affect felt by the participants subsequent to making intergroup evaluations (Hypothesis 2). Secondly, we regressed outgroup derogation on ingroup identification. After including both outgroup derogation and ingroup favoritism as covariates, on the self-directed negative affect measure the outgroup derogation covariate was individually and in combination significant, combined F(1, 45) = 4.93, p <.05, and the ingroup favoritism covariate was individually and in combination nonsignificant, Fs < 1. www.uiowa.edu /~grpproc/crisp/crisp.10.2.html   (5191 words)

BSC 214   (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01) States that are found in the ingroup and not in the outgroup are considered derived for the ingroup. The ancestral taxa (outgroup) is coded "0" for each character, where "0" represents the ancestral character state. Any character state of an ingroup taxa which is the same as the outgroup is thus coded "0", and if it is different from the outgroup it is a derived character and is coded "1". webpages.marshall.edu /~hurlburt/phylolec.html   (1108 words)

MrBayes   (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01) This command assigns a taxon to the outgroup. " assigns the third taxon in the matrix to be the outgroup. " assings the taxon "Homo_sapiens" to be the outgroup (assuming that there is a taxon named "Homo_sapiens" in the matrix). mrbayes.csit.fsu.edu /Help/outgroup.html   (51 words)

Introduction to Systematics To use outgroup comparison, we find one or more species that are relatives of the group we are studying but outside of it in that they are equally related to all members of the group we are studying. Because this characteristic is found in both the outgroup AND the ingroup, it is most likely that the outgroup and ingroup species inherited it from the species that was the ancestor to both the outgroup and the ingroup (the species labeled "A" on the tree.) Thus, it is a primitive characteristic. In general, characteristics found in both the outgroup and some ingroup species are most likely to have been inherited from the ancestor to the outgroup and the ingroup; that is why we consider them most likely primitive to the ingroup. www.utm.edu /departments/cens/biology/rirwin/391/391Cladistics.htm   (3214 words)

Crisp Volume 4 No. 9 In the second instance, it is postulated that by attributing negative ingroup or positive outgroup behavior to external, unstable or uncontrollable causes a positive social identity may be maintained or protected. These tests compared mean attributions made for; (a) positive ingroup and outgroup behavior; (b) negative ingroup and outgroup behavior; (c) positive and negative ingroup behavior and; (d) positive and negative outgroup behavior. The fourth was obtained by subtracting the proportion of internal attributions made for negative outgroup behavior from those made for positive outgroup behavior. www.uiowa.edu /~grpproc/crisp/crisp.4.9.htm   (3918 words)

Was the ANITA Rooting of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Affected by Long-Branch Attraction? -- Qiu et al. 18 (9): 1745 -- ... as the outgroup to determine the ingroup topology. sequences as the outgroup are presented in table 1. lycopod and bryophyte sequences as the outgroup to root the mbe.oxfordjournals.org /cgi/content/full/18/9/1745   (4765 words)

Phylogeny Do not choose either an outgroup that is too closely related to the taxa in question. In this case it may not be a true outgroup. In the absence of a good outgroup the root may be positioned by assuming approximately equal evolutionary rates over all the branches. www.icp.ucl.ac.be /~opperd/private/phylogeny.html   (1346 words)

American Psychological Society - Prejudice from Thin Air: Emotions Reach Into The Social Mind These feelings, although unrelated to intergroup relations, exacerbated prejudice toward members of the ethnic outgroup, provoked many small instances of intergroup conflict, and eventually exploded into a riot where individuals acted in ways that were uncharacteristic of their usual behavior. Consequently, when people experience an emotion, like anger, that signifies the likelihood of conflict in the environment, the emotional experience may serve as a lens to distort their nonconscious evaluations of an outgroup, even when the outgroup is a novel one. Then, participants were shown pictures of other individuals who belonged to their ingroup or outgroup; these individuals' group membership was indicated only by the color of the backdrop behind the individual in the picture (i.e., red vs. blue). www.psychologicalscience.org /media/releases/pr040305.cfm   (1145 words)

Ingroup-Outgroup Christians When we're talking with someone, we are always aware of the groups that person is willing to vilify with us – we agree on someone to outgroup – and that agreement on who to outgroup is how we relate to each other. A child who sucks his thumb at age twelve could occupy his hands with something more constructive. I think peacemaking with our outgroups is a way of redirecting our energy. www.bloomingthorn.com /articles/ingroup-outgroup_christians.htm   (882 words)

Macroevolutionary Patterns and Phylogeny, Sinervo©1997 The outgroup of chimpanzees presumably arose from the common ancestor in the remote past, and both humans and chimps share this common ancestor. A shared ancestral character is found in the outgroup, and in those members of the clade that have not experienced any modification of the trait from the state found in the common ancestor. This is because we infer that if the outgroup species shares the trait and it is found in some clades, the specis in these clades must have received the trait in an unmodified form from the common ancestor. bio.research.ucsc.edu /~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/PHYLOG.HTM   (8245 words)

The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love or Outgroup Hate? Journal of Social Issues - Find Articles Yet the prevailing approach to the study of ethnocentrism, in group bias, and prejudice presumes that in group love and outgroup hate are reciprocally related. Findings from both cross-cultural research and laboratory experiments support the alternative view that in group identification is independent of negative attitudes toward outgroups and that much in group bias and intergroup discrimination is motivated by preferential treatment of in group members rather than direct hostility toward outgroup members. In this chapter, Allport postulated that ingroups are "psychologically primary," in the sense that familiarity, attachment, and preference for one's ingroups come prior to development of attitudes toward specific outgroups. www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m0341/is_3_55/ai_58549254   (448 words)

APS 15th Annual Convention Program Book :: Submission Detail Participants exhibited more outgroup discrimination in preference for group leaders and group composition if induced to think of their ingroup as only the intersection of their multiple identities rather than the union of their identities. SCIENTIFIC ISSUE: Most research in the area of intergroup relations has focused on the negative consequences of outgroup discrimination and how it might be reduced by perceiving outgroup members as individuals or as part of a larger (superordinate) ingroup. These varying identity structures have important implications for how many people are considered outgroup members; a simple structure implies a small ingroup and a large outgroup, while a complex structure implies a large ingroup and a small outgroup. www.psychologicalscience.org /cfs/program/view_submission.cfm?Abstract_ID=3786   (545 words)

BIOLOGY 151 - GENERAL BIOLOGY I Thus, the presence of a notochord is not useful in resolving relationships among Primates (monkeys, chimps, humans, etc.), since they all have a notochord. For example: - If Dinosaurs are the ingroup, Birds are their first outgroup, crocs are the second outgroup, turtles are the third outgroup, mammals are the fourth outgroup, etc.. If Vertebrates are the ingroup, hagfish are their first outgroup, cephalochordates their second outgroup, urochordates their third outgroup, etc.. www.usd.edu /biol/genbio/151/paula/pm9.html   (302 words)

Group Identification and Outgroup Attitudes in Four South African Ethnic Groups: A Multidimensional Approach -- Duckitt ... Group Identification and Outgroup Attitudes in Four South African Ethnic Groups: A Multidimensional Approach -- Duckitt et al. Articles by Duckitt, J. Articles by Wagner, C. Group Identification and Outgroup Attitudes in Four South African Ethnic Groups: A Multidimensional Approach and involvement, with attitudes to ethnic outgroups in four psp.sagepub.com /cgi/content/abstract/31/5/633   (176 words)

All that you know about outgroup - BioForum In the case of viral species, you can choose a member of the same group, or a more distantly related virus (that depends whether you want to show that all of the viruses you are studying are closely related or if you want to show that they are quite varied). Because I did not use an outgroup, I could view the tree as "unrooted" which makes classification easy since you can draw nice big circles over the groups. In another case, I was looking at variants of a virus that was well studied, so I could easily pick an outgroup from amongst the closely related viruses, and in this case the phylogenetics programs were "better" at the analysis since the differences were small. www.protocol-online.org /forums/index.php?showtopic=8693&view=getnewpost   (621 words)

Crimean Project They were randomly assigned to questions priming personal/social identity, presence/absence of outgroup threat, and presence/absence of ingroup support for these goals. Experiment 2 demonstrated that outgroup threat and ingroup support reinforce the willingness to fight, except for Russians who are less willing to fight for the 'incorporation of Crimea in Russia' under outgroup threat. A test of the relative effect of group identification and group interests showed that salience of identity and attachment to interests contribute to Russians' and Tatars' willingness to fight for ingroup goals, but willingness to fight against outgroup goals is only affected by interests. www.ercomer.org /research/crimean.html   (229 words)

Journal of Religion and Society The latter may be a dominant outgroup (Catholics in southern Europe) or a minority outgroup (Catholics in England). The more the displacing person hates himself the more he hates the outgroup, but this does not relieve the frustration, because the displaced object of anger is not in reality related to the true source of frustration (Allport: 351). If an outgroup poses a real threat to the ingroup, then the result will be hostility towards the outgroup. moses.creighton.edu /JRS/2005/2005-6.html   (7009 words)

[No title] Graffiti illustrates the role of symbols in heightening both ingroup and outgroup loyalties because graffiti in and of itself is not inherently good or bad. It symbolizes that the outgroup does not respect the property and rights of the members of the ingroup (and even of other outgroup members) and symbolizes their ability to "disrupt" the lives of ingroup members. Thus, outgroup members are bonded by their desire to make an impact on the community and leave their mark. www.nku.edu /~ferrantej/chapter6.html   (923 words)

Effect of Misoriented Sites on Neutrality Tests With Outgroup -- Baudry and Depaulis 165 (3): 1619 -- Genetics Three neutrality tests with an outgroup have been proposed. In practice, an outgroup is used to identify the derived and a second mutation occurred on the outgroup branch. www.genetics.org /cgi/content/full/165/3/1619   (2329 words)

Research Agenda This is a particularly powerful and reliable route to group consensus that an outgroup must be taught a lesson, crushed, or even eliminated. The obverse of constructing moral violation by the outgroup is constructing martyrdom for members of the ingroup. Particularly at such points it will be important to understand how individual behavior is a function of both individual attitudes of hostility to outgroup and developing ingroup norms that threaten reprisal for "treasonable" interaction with the outgroup. www.psych.upenn.edu /sacsec/research/agenda.htm   (2211 words)

Social behavior and personality: an international journal   (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01) Two experiments are reported which investigate the influence of ingroup and outgroup minority influence where group membership was determined according to a trivial dimension. In the second study the connotations associated with membership of the ingroup and outgroup (positive/negative) were experimentally manipulated. However, when ingroup/outgroup membership was associated with a negative/positive image, as predicted, an outgroup minority had more influence than an ingroup minority. www.sbp-journal.com /journal_detail.php?journal_id=16   (221 words)

Education World ® Lesson Plan: Outgroup Experiment Reveals Bias, Stereotyping By having students dress as members of "outgroups," interact with other individuals on campus, and observe the communication that takes place, this activity allows students to gain an inside understanding of how false assumptions and stereotyping can have an impact on -- or even hinder -- communication. It should be stressed that their portrayal of the outgroup should be respectful and should not mock the outgroup in any way. How being perceived as a member of an outgroup could affect communication, both for the individual and for others interacting with the individual. www.education-world.com /a_tsl/archives/04-1/lesson002.shtml   (778 words)

Limitations of Relative Apparent Synapomorphy Analysis (RASA) for Measuring Phylogenetic Signal -- Simmons et al. 19 ... outgroups are -4.65, -1.61, -0.35, and 2.85, respectively (table 5 of characters that are plesiomorphic in the outgroup. RASA when Saruma was the designated outgroup (table 8). mbe.oxfordjournals.org /cgi/content/full/19/1/14   (4913 words)

CONF 803: Notes and Discussions - Ashmore   (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01) Competition reduced only if ingroup isolated from outgroup or ingroup is so distant in evaluative comparison, holds such high status, that magnanimity towards the outgroup occurs. o Aggression towards the outgroup viewed as justified if it reflects the attitude that the very existence of the ingroup or its social identity is threatened. · Ingroup Differentiation and Outgroup Stereotypes - Individuals reflect norms of behavior associated with the ingroup (behaving differently with members of the outgroup); these norms are often the basis for outgroup wariness, constraint and negative stereotyping which is exacerbated by the accentuation principle which exaggerates differences. classweb.gmu.edu /hwjeong/Ashmore803.htm   (3837 words)

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