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Topic: Palmyrene Empire

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	Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Once again the Roman Empire was ruled by a single ruler, but with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the Empire into three parts.
		It was during this period that the two empires truly diverged, as the east began a slow recovery and consolidation, the west began to collapse entirely.
		The division between the empires would only grow as the influence of the Pope on the former territories of the west grew, resulting in growing rivalry between the east and west.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Western_Roman_Empire (2776 words)

	Aurelian - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (September 9, 214–275), known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270–275), was the second of several highly successful "soldier-emperors" who helped the Roman Empire regain its power during the latter part of the third century and the beginning of the fourth.
		During his reign, the Empire was reunited in its entirety, following 15 years of rebellion, the loss of two-thirds of its territory to usurpers and devastating barbarian invasions.
		In 272, he turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, the so-called "Palmyrene Empire" ruled by Queen Zenobia from the city of Palmyra.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Aurelian (1046 words)

	Roman timeline from 268AD to 284AD
		When the Goths eventually succeeded in taking parts of the western Empire in the 5th century, their disruption to the course of civilization was likely much less violent than it would have been had they succeeded in the 3rd century.
		Odaenathus's status as chief of Palmyra is commemorated on bilingual Greek and Palmyrene inscriptions at Palmyra as early as 251 and 252.
		The Palmyrene war (272-273) Aurelian's next project was the reintegration of the Eastern provinces into the Roman Empire : Zenobia of Palmyra and her son Vaballathus had established the Palmyrene Empire extending from Egypt to Asia Minor.
	myweb.tiscali.co.uk /temetfutue/timeline/tl_Imperial-c.htm (13724 words)

	Middle East Open Encyclopedia: Crisis of the Third Century (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		As general after general squabbled over control of the empire, the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths, Vandals and Alamanni, and outright attacks from Sassanids in the east.
		The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire, and two years later in 260, the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the Palmyrene Empire (with Persian backing), leaving the remaining Italian centered Roman empire proper in the middle.
		Aurelian brought the empire through the worst of the crisis during his reign (270-275) by hammering, in succession, the Vandals, Visigoths, Palmyrenes (see Queen Zenobia), Persians, and then the remainder of the Gallic Empire.
	www.baghdadmuseum.org /ref/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century (1612 words)

	Aurelian Info - Bored Net - Boredom (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus) (214 - 275), Roman Emperor (270 - 275) was the second of several highly successful "soldier-emperors" who helped the Roman Empire regain its power during the latter part of the third century and the beginning of the fourth.
		However, he was forced to abandon the province of Dacia, on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as too difficult and expensive to defend.
		In 272, he turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia from the great city of Palmyra on the Euphrates River.
	www.borednet.com /e/n/encyclopedia/a/au/aurelian.html (805 words)

	John Lynch
		Two inscriptions found at the site of Berenike attesting to the presence of Palmyrene soldiers in the city during the second and third centuries AD are the only pieces of evidence documenting a long and often violent rivalry between the two trading cities, a history which must be assembled from scattered historical and archaeological records.
		Their opposition originated during the Hellenistic era and continued into the early years of the Roman Empire, but the stalemate was broken during the second century AD, when an apparent increase in banditry along Berenike’s overland connection to the Nile prevented the flow of trade goods and shifted the port’s business into Palmyrene hands.
		It was not uncommon to find Palmyrene archers abroad; from the time of Vespasian and Titus, Palmyrene archers were a common feature in Roman armies across the empire, but the mounted archers belonged to a very special and important military category, independent from the normal chain of command.
	www.archbase.com /berenike/UCstudentLA7.html (2267 words)

	Jencek's Ancient Coins & Antiquties
		In the ensuing straggle the Palmyrene Empire fell to Aurelian, and Zenobia and Vabalathus were taken as captives to Rome.
		The Empire was then divided between the two rules, Valentinian being content to leave the government of the Eastern provinces to his brother, while he himself concentrated on the defense of the Rhine frontier.
		Late in 375, while in residence at Bregetio, in Pannonia, Valentinian granted an audience to a deputation of Quadi; enraged at the impudence of the barbarians, the emperor was seized with an apoplectic fit and died soon afterwards.
	ancient-coins.com /emperors/emperors.htm (4414 words)

	Roma Invicta
		The main difference in this timeline and my other is that in the other, Rome remains a goliath empire, but in this one will make her way to the modern age at a "moderate" size, but still weild immense power over europe (something along the lines of the pope in the middle ages).
		With a newly fortified Rome and Italian peninsula, perhaps the empire could have held in smaller form in the west as it did in the east.
		Brutus becomes the leading statesman of the restored republic and restructures it to be capable of governing a large empire.
	www.geocities.com /romanophile/main.html (1572 words)

	The Gallic Empire
		After the fall of the Gallic Empire Domitianus was punished for treason by emperor Aurelian.
		Finally, in early AD 274 emperor Aurelian, having defeated the Palmyrene empire in the east, now sought to reunite all the empire and marched against the Gallic empire.
		The circumstances surrounding the end of the Gallic empire though are shrouded in mystery.
	www.roman-empire.net /decline/gallic.html (1295 words)

	Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2002.04.20
		Before an appendix on the Nachleben of Zenobia and one listing some Palmyrene inscriptions conclude the study, the twelfth and last chapter, to which the author attaches much importance, is dedicated to the Palmyrene empire as seen in the historical context of the third century (pp.
		The question -- whether the Palmyrene dynasts intended from the beginning to form a counterweight to the Romans or if tensions with Rome arose only after the death of Gallienus, when Aurelian was afraid of the mighty position of Zenobia -- has led to many scholarly discussions in recent years.
		He tries to show that the historical circumstances (the permanent threat from the Sassanid dynasty as well as the Bedouins and the unstable state of the imperial government) were responsible for the rise of Odaenathus' power in the region.
	ccat.sas.upenn.edu /bmcr/2002/2002-04-20.html (1009 words)

	Rome, city, Italy: The Roman Empire (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		During this time the Roman Empire was the largest it would ever be; its boundaries included Armenia, middle Mesopotamia, the Arabian desert, the Red Sea, Nubia, the Sahara, the Moroccan mountain mass, the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea, Scotland, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus.
		Augustus' chief additions to the empire were a strip along the North Sea W of the Elbe and part of the Danubian area.
		Their conflict with the empire, which brought on them continual persecution, was chiefly a result of the Christian refusal to offer divine honors to the emperors.
	www.infoplease.com /ce6/world/A0860803.html (1721 words)

	Roman Emperors - DIR Aurelian
		The Palmyrene war (A.D. Aurelian's next project was the reintegration of the Eastern provinces into the Roman Empire [[15]]: Zenobia of Palmyra and her son Vaballathus had established the Palmyrene Empire extending from Egypt to Asia Minor.
		In the summer of A.D. 272, Aurelian defeated the Palmyrene army near Antiochia (perhaps at Immae).
		After the culmination of the crisis that had started in the fifties and sixties of the third century with the emergence of the Gallic and the Palmyrene Empires, Roman rule was now consolidated again.
	www.roman-emperors.org /aurelian.htm (3834 words)

	A thought on a divided 3rd century Rome - AlternateHistory.com Discussion Board
		In the 3rd Century, the Roman Empire was at a nadir.
		There were quite literally dozens of claimants for the throne of the Empire, with the Historia Augusta, a contemporary work, identifying thirty pretenders in the space of twenty years.
		The "Gallic" Empire was a result of rebellion of Romans in charge of Gaul, taking control of the legions there; in fact, Postumus theoretically claimed Emperorship of Rome, although he was not practically interested in attacking it, knowing well that the survival of his state would be severely jeopardized by an all-out attack.
	www.alternatehistory.com /discussion/showthread.php?t=4124 (1245 words)

	Kennedy1
		The reasonable Parthian expectation that the boundary between the two empires might be the Euphrates was soon to be dashed by Pompey whose forces in the mid-60s BC crossed the river and drove deep into Armenia and the Caucasus.
		Both empires, debilitated by the effects of this and earlier wars, civil strife and wars on other frontiers, were too weak to resist the Arab forces of Islam.
		In the Early Empire Rome was acting from a position of strength, choosing to administe rsome regions in thls manner; in the Late Empire it is clear that these Arab phylarchs were powerful and independent.
	www.fordham.edu /halsall/med/ken.html (9584 words)

	Crisis of the Third Century - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		After 35 years of this, the Empire was on the verge of death, and only the military skill of Aurelian, one of Rome's greatest emperors, restored the empire to its natural boundaries.
		As general after general squabbled over control of the empire, the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths, Vandals and Alamanni, and outright attacks from Persia.
		In that year, the vast Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania all broke off to form the so-called Gallic Empire, and two years later, the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Egypt became independent as the Palmyrene Empire, with Parthian backing.
	www.info-en.com /index.php/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century (406 words)

	Crisis of the Third Century (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The "Crisis of the Third Century" (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis") is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse.
		Internally the empire faced runaway hyperinflation caused by years of coinage dilution.
		This had the predictable effect of causing runaway inflation and by the time Diocletian came to power the economy of the Roman Empire had nearly collapsed; the currency had almost no value and trade was by barter.
	www.worldhistory.com /wiki/C/Crisis-of-the-Third-Century.htm (824 words)

	Ancient Rome - Ancient Civilization
		During the Roman republic, several dates were given for the founding of the city, all in the interval between 758 BC and 728 BC.
		Finally, under the Roman empire the date suggested by Atticus and Varro, (753 BC) was agreed upon, but in Fasti Capitolini the year given was 752.
		As general after general squabbled over control of the empire, the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by such Germanic tribes as the Goths, Vandals and Alamanni, and outright attacks from Persia.
	www.ancient-civilization.info /ancient-rome (886 words)

	History: Ancillary fields: Coins.
		Roman Emperors: The Tetrarchy and the House of Constantine
		Established when the empire of Alexander the Great was partitioned among his followers, the Seleucid kingdom originally extended eastwards from Asia Minor into what is now Pakistan.
		The founder of the Seleucid dynasty, he was a Macedonian general who served under Alexander the Great, and in the second partition of Alexander's empire in 321 BC was made satrap (governor) of Babylon, becoming king of Babylonia in 312 BC.
	www.petergh.f2s.com /coinshistory.htm (2706 words)

	iqexpand.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The Gallic or Gallo-Roman Empire consisted of the break-away Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Hispania, even peaceful Baetica in the south.
		When Aurelian assumed the reins government the Roman world was divided three sections: the Gallo-Roman Empire, established by Postumus, comprising Gaul and Britain; the Kingdom of Palmyra, which held...
		Aurelian (A.D. which was abandoned in A.D. He put an end to the Palmyrene Empire in the east and Gallo-Roman Empire in the west.
	gallo-roman_empire.iqexpand.com (394 words)

	CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Syria
		Meanwhile in an obscure corner of the empire Mohammed had been born, and in this very year sent round a letter demanding for a new creed the submission of the kings of the earth.
		East of the Mediterranean the Roman Empire had given way forever, and the Arab arms now ruled the Churches which the councils of two centuries before had cut off from the orthodox communion.
		For the future it was not the Melchite or Imperialist to whom the Eastern Churches were to acknowledge an unwilling homage, but the sword of Islam.
	www.newadvent.org /cathen/14399a.htm (7039 words)

	GREEK - Online Information article about GREEK (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Under the empire Athens issued only quasi-autonomous coins, but these are of great archaeological value as they bear representations of the See also:
		In the later 4th century a head of Hera (copied without spirit from the coins of Argos) occupies the obverse of didrachms and drachms, and the reverse has a maze through which the way may be clearly traced.
		This series closes with Alexander's empire, and the native coinage disappears until the league of Cephisodorus revives it with the Athenian tetradrachm of Attic weight, bearing the name of the Cnossians.
	encyclopedia.jrank.org /GRA_GUI/GREEK.html (5953 words)

	Zenobia: Queen of valor and chastity
		Not long after, the family who both to created a Palmyrene empire and brought about the city's downfall appeared upon the political scene in the person of a certain Odenath, who was executed for rebellion.
		Rebellious ambition was in the family blood, and found in the vast and sudden wealth of the foremost Palmyrenes a fatal stimulus.
		As it was the Palmyrene armies were twice defeated in the field, and the city besieged and taken.
	www.arabicnews.com /ansub/Daily/Day/010503/2001050329.html (643 words)

	Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc.
		Decius and Herennius were killed in battle by the Goths in 251 -- the only Roman Emperors to die in battle (against external enemies) besides Julian (against the Persians, 363), Valens (against the Goths again, 378), Nicephorus I (against the Bulgars, 811), and Constantine XI (with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453).
		The abyss of the deep was laid open; various types of marine creatures could be seen stuck in the slime, and huge mountains and valleys which had been hidden since the creation in the depths of the waves then, one must suppose, saw the light of the sun for the first time.
		By the settlement with the Crusaders, Venice was ceded 3/8 of the Empire, and the Doge henceforth styled himself quartae partis et dimidiae totius imperii Romaniae Dominator ("Lord of a quarter and a half [of a quarter] of the whole Empire of Romania").
	www.friesian.com /romania.htm (14392 words)

	30225endimages.htm
		Invasions and rebellions in the Roman Empire, A.D. Map.
		Shows the Roman frontier, the Gallic Empire in 260 and the Palmyrene empire as well as the Persian invasions of 253-60, and the Germanic invasions of 251-71.
		Shows the Roman frontier, the division between Eastern and Western Empires, imperial and regional capitals, and the prefectures of Gallia, Oriens, Illyricum, Italia, and Africa.
	www.utexas.edu /courses/romanciv/30225endimages.htm (532 words)

	FORVM's Classical Numismatics Discussion Board Gallery
		History: Held a variety of important posts for the Empire before being dispatched by Philip to the Danube to settle a local revolt and quell a growing flood of barbaric incursions.
		Rome was in the midst of a major outbreak of the plague which soon counted Hostilian one of its victims.
		With all points of the Empire collapsing under the strain of barbarous invasions, father and son agreed to geographically split their responsabilities with the son headed to the West and Valerian focused to the East.
	www.forumancientcoins.com /gallery/thumbnails.php?album=426&page=3 (1678 words)

	Semitic Languages (and the Phoenician language)
		Aramaic spread with tremendous speed, and by the 6th century BC was being used as the administrative language and lingua franca of the entire Middle East, all the way from Afghanistan in the Persian Empire to Egypt.
		The West Aramaic languages include Nabataean, Palmyrene, Aramaic of Hatra, Jewish Palestine Aramaic (or Galilean Aramaic), Samaritan Aramaic and Christian Palestine Aramaic (Palestinian Syriac).
		The inhabitants of the Nabataean kingdom (Petra and surroundings in southern Jordan), Palmyra (Tadmor in northeastern Syria) and Hatra (el-Hadr in northern Iraq) between 100 BC and AD 350 wrote epitaphs and other short texts in Aramaic, the lingua franca of the day, using their own variant scripts.
	phoenicia.org /semlang.html (2729 words)

	Coins of Claudius Gothicus & Quintillus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		However, it was during his reign that Queen Zenobia revolted against the Romans, and Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt were lost to the Romans under the Palmyrene Secessionist Empire until 272, when they were reconquered under the emperor Aurelian.
		He was elevated as Augustus by the senate upon the death of his brother and seemed to have briefly ruled unchallenged.
		In April the highly popular general Aurelian staged a revolt in their homeland of Illyricum, and armies across the empire joined to his cause.
	www.ruark.org /coins/Roman/4Military/Claudius2.html (700 words)

	Coins of Aurelian (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		In the east, he fought against the powerful Palmyrene Secessionist Empire under Zenobia, retaking Antioch by August of 271 and soon afterwards taking Palmyra itself, capturing Zenobia and Vabalathus.
		Tetricus surrendered the Gallic Empire to Aurelian in 274, for which he was rewarded with a high government post in Italy.
		Another theory is that the numerals give the value of the new coins: 20 radiates to one gold aureus.
	www.ruark.org /coins/Roman/4Military/Aurelian.html (572 words)

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