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	Chapter 9: Penal Servitude in Early Modern Spain
		In the history of penal servitude as a punishment in criminal law, the naval arsenals occupy an intermediate stage between the punitive hard labor of the galleys and the rehabilitative labor of the modern correctional prisons.
		Penal servitude, which reached its highest point of development in the eighteenth century, was stimulated by the utilitarian spirit of the age and the reforms of the Bourbon rulers.
		The rapid growth of penal servitude in the eighteenth century can be viewed against the background of a conjunction of socioeconomic factors such as the decline of slavery, an increase in the number of convicted criminals, and a rise in the demand for unskilled workers in the public sphere.
	libro.uca.edu /pservitude/psems9.htm (2525 words)

	Labor camp - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in penal labor.
		In the Yalta conference it was agreed that German forced labor was to be utilized as reparations.
		In Communist Romania, labor camps were operated for projects such as the building of the Danube-Black Sea Canal and the desiccation of the Great Brăila Island, on which "enemies of the people" were "re-educated" by forced labor.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Labor_camp (1083 words)

	[No title]
		The penal law deems unindictable all individuals of less than 18 years of age who at the time of performing a fact legally described, are not capable of self-determination as per such understanding.
		Precautionary detentions are formalized by a detention warrant submitted by the penal judge to the director of the prison where the accused is held.
		The trial stage is related to the penal judge whose primary functions are: direction of the proceedings, handling of hearings, assessment of evidence and, rendering of rulings according to law.
	www.ojp.usdoj.gov /bjs/pub/ascii/wfcjsco.txt (13545 words)

	Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives
		Prison labor was also supposed to be more mobile than hired labor in that it could be shifted in large numbers from one project to another.
		Penal labor was supposed to provide these surpluses and resource mobility without the loss of labor productivity.
		The systematic utilization of forced labor began in 1926 and was initially limited to forestry and fisheries in the local environs.
	www.uh.edu /~vlazarev/4389/Gulag-Gregory.htm (4304 words)

	PCI: History of PCI (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		The Pennsylvania penal system, originating in 1682 under the leadership of William Penn, was the first state prison system to suggest the replacement of torture and mutilation as punishment for crimes with hard labor in houses of correction.
		However, Penn's efforts were not futile as the penal code outlined in 1682 left a mark on the laws of Pennsylvania, and the evolution of prison labor across the nation.
		The commission was charged with inquiring into the advisability of amending the penal laws of the Commonwealth, to provide for employment of all inmates of all penal institutions, compensation of inmate labor, and utilization of inmate labor in the penal and charitable institutions of the Commonwealth.
	www.pci.state.pa.us /pci/cwp/view.asp?a=3&q=82379 (3139 words)

	David Northrup \| Free and Unfree Labor Migration, 1600–1900: An Introduction \| Journal of World History, 14.2 \| ...
		Besides their common concern with Western-constructed labor migration, the three authors also struggle to extract larger meaning from labor migrations that are documented almost exclusively from Western sources and whose interpretation has been dominated by the horrors of the African slave trade and the rhetorical idealism of abolitionism and working-class Marxism.
		The push of labor unions repositioned the definition of acceptable labor practices still further, resulting in numerous changes in the terms to which free laborers might legitimately be subject.
		Conditions of service in the overseas colonies varied, but the perspectives of the laborers exerted a powerful influence on employers and colonial officials who were eager to persuade the indentured immigrants to stay beyond the terms of their first contracts.
	www.historycooperative.org /journals/jwh/14.2/northrup.html (2135 words)

	ColorLines: Fall 1998 -- Prison Labor
		Once seen as merely a punitive measure, today’s penal labor is central to an ever-expanding “punishment industry” that is becoming a massive purveyor of ultra-cheap, captive labor to large corporations and government entities.
		Inmate workers subject to forced labor as a result of that crucial exception in the Thirteenth Amendment are used as pawns by employers seeking to raise profit margins and undermine unionization efforts.
		By contrast, prison labor in Cuba is regulated by the same agency that regulates employment outside, and inmates receive wages equal to the prevailing standards in the larger society.
	www.angelfire.com /sc2/mplu/chains.html (878 words)

	Chapter One: Penal Servitude in Early Modern Spain
		The reappearance of penal labor in western Europe at the end of the Middle Ages coincided with the emergence of the national state and an increase in its wealth and power.
		The utilization of forzados from the galleys in unskilled labor in the arsenals and navy yards during the last years of the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth century set the precedent for their use ashore in the second half of the eighteenth century.
		In the years 1749-87, a period of naval expansion, sentences to hard labor in the arsenals became the most common form of punishment as the government exploited the manpower of prisoners to perform the necessary heavy labor of construction and maintenance in the naval arsenals.
	libro.uca.edu /pservitude/psems1.htm (9809 words)

	U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea
		Their sentences entail slave labor in mining, logging, and farming enterprises in the valleys of mountainous areas in north and north-central North Korea.
		In the kyo-hwa-so, as in the kwan-li-so, prisoners are compelled to perform hard labor — virtually slave labor — under dreadfully harsh conditions, in mining, logging, textile manufacturing, or other industrial projects, such as brick- or cement-making.
		A major phenomenon of repression associated with the kyo-hwa-so is the shockingly large number of deaths in detention from slave labor under dangerous circumstances and from starvation-level food rations.
	www.hrnk.org /hiddengulag/executiveSummary.html (1368 words)

	AUSTRALIAN PENAL COLONIES
		The convicted could be entered in a "labor gang in which a variety of tasks on public works" were completed or the convicted could be placed in an "iron gang which is forced labor while wearing chains fastened to the ankles and waist" (Connah 51).
		Both the labor gang and the iron gang were employed in areas known as "stockades," which were "surrounded by a high stacked fence" and usually "deep in the bush and guarded" (Connah 55).
		It was interesting to note that in the beginning of all penal settlements, people had a hard time determining a name for the country.
	www.umd.umich.edu /casl/hum/eng/classes/434/geweb/AUSTRALI.htm (2619 words)

	Document 31
		The overload is explained, first, by the fact that a lot of people are held for a long time under investigation and, second, by the fact that the people's judges hearing cases apply the full force of the law.
		Labor output in man-days: according to plan 110,855 for the first six months, 79,741 days were actually put in, comprising 71.9 percent.
		In terms of labor productivity, seven rubles, sixty one kopecks for one day's labor (according to plan), the actual was the sum six rubles forty nine kopecks, or 85.87 percent.
	www.yale.edu /annals/siegelbaum/English_docs/Siegelbaum_doc_31.htm (1597 words)

	CL Pamphlet
		The Labor Code definition means, for example, that high school graduates under the age of 18, who are not subject to the compulsory education laws, are entirely excluded from permit requirements, workhour restrictions, and all occupational prohibitions.
		The U.S. Department of Labor considers the term "school in session" to mean the scheduled schooldays of the public school system in the county where the minor resides.
		Farm labor contractors who knowingly send any minor to any house of ill fame, gambling house, or to any place where alcohol is sold to be consumed on the premises commit a misdemeanor and may have their license suspended [LC 1698.4, 1698.5, 1697, and 1690].
	www.dir.ca.gov /DLSE/childLaborPamphlet2000.html (14682 words)

	\| Book Review \| Law and History Review, 19.2 \| The History Cooperative
		In the 1780s the Pennsylvania General Assembly instituted a system of public penal labor, one designed to reform the character of convicts and impress the citizenry with the horror of crime and the power of the state.
		Like convict laboring sites, the courtroom, the stage, the tavern, and the fair grounds became controversial arenas of public display, places that allegedly threatened the creation of a virtuous, disciplined society.
		Penal reformers and Pennsylvania legislators defended the use of the gag and argued that Maccumsey precipitated his own death by struggling against it.
	www.historycooperative.org /journals/lhr/19.2/br_4.html (1251 words)

	[No title]
		This bill would require the prohibition to also include abusive forms of child labor or exploitation of children in sweatshop labor, as defined, and would state the intent of the Legislature to adopt a procurement policy prohibiting procurement of materials produced with the use of these forms of labor.
		It is the intent of the Legislature to establish a procurement policy of the State of California prohibiting purchase of any materials, goods, or services produced by or with the benefit of forced labor, convict labor, indentured labor under penal sanction, abusive forms of child labor, or exploitation of children in sweatshop labor.
		(2) "Abusive forms of child labor" means any of the following: (A) All forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage, and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict.
	info.sen.ca.gov /pub/99-00/statute/ch_0851-0900/ch_891_st_2000_sb_1888 (618 words)

	Madagascar Trafficking in Person Report February 2004
		The reports suggested that the minors in question often came from poorer districts in the cities and from surrounding rural areas, but did not suggest that force, fraud, or coercion by third parties was responsible for their presence in areas where prostitution is practiced.
		The Ministries of Justice, Interior, Population, Labor, and Tourism are involved in various activities related to the issue of trafficking.
		Traffickers are liable for prosecution under several provisions of the Malagasy Penal and Labor Codes, including the Penal Code provision prohibiting pedophilia and procurement of minors for prostitution.
	www.usmission.mg /MadTIP04eng.htm (1722 words)

	What is slavery?
		This means that no court will enforce a contract to buy and sell slaves or enforce the right of a master to the labor of his or her slave.
		Slavery is sometimes confused with other forms of servitude, such as forced labor, bonded labor, pawnage and servile concubinage.
		The expression "forced labor", in international law, refers to those forms of labor obligations or penal labor imposed by a state or an agency or agent of the government or state and which are described in the Forced Labor Convention 1930 and the Abolition of Forced Labor Convention 1957.
	www.anti-slaverysociety.addr.com /slavery2.htm (209 words)

	Plaszow Concentration Camp - shown in Schindler's List
		The next stage of the Final Solution for the Krakow Jews was the liquidation of the Podgorze ghetto and the transportation of the remaining Jews to the forced labor camp at Plaszow on March 13 and 14, 1943.
		At this point, Plaszow was still not a concentration camp, but a penal labor camp under the jurisdiction of local SS men in the General Government, as the central section of occupied Poland was called by the Nazis.
		It was because this was a labor camp, under local authority, that the random killing of prisoners by Amon Goeth did not command much attention among the top brass.
	www.scrapbookpages.com /Poland/Plaszow/Plaszow01.html (744 words)

	Labor:
		Demand for labor is determined the similar way to demand for material inputs as input-output coefficients.
		Supply for labor is based on the decision of individual households based on time-leisure choice.
		Penal labor in concentration camps (gulag): Started to increase with the collectivization drive, reached 2-11 million in 1939.
	grove.ufl.edu /~toda/RusEcon/chap7.htm (428 words)

	Oman
		Within each of the courts, there are divisions to consider commercial, civil, penal, labor, taxation, general, and personal status cases, such as divorce and inheritance (the latter under Shari'a law).
		Child labor existed in the informal, subsistence, and family business sectors of the economy; however, it was not a problem in the organized labor market (see Section 6.d.).
		The Labor Law stipulates that enterprises employing more than 50 persons should have at least 2 percent of the jobs earmarked for persons with disabilities; however, this regulation was not widely enforced.
	www.state.gov /g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41729.htm (5894 words)

	[No title]
		Soviets: lots of administrative controls over labor allocation => wage differentials not high enough => smaller Giny coefficients (any answer to the last part of the question supported by logic was sufficient).
		Penal labor Most efficient: education: people self-selected, competition.
		Gosplan gets targets and plan fulfillment figures, and develops a preliminary targets for 300 (small) number of commodities, informs ministries and enlists their help in developing the full set of control figures.
	www.public.asu.edu /~lukashii/ecn365/ecn365_98/mid2ans.doc (699 words)

	iCorrection.com -- Prisons in the United States
		A Penal Colony is a colony used to detain prisoners and generally use them for penal labor in an economically underdeveloped part of the state's (usually colonial) territories, and on a far larger scale than the prison farm.
		Utilizing a penal construction and operation theory known as the "control unit" prison, the conditions of these facilities are extremely harsh — excessively so to some human rights watchdog organizations.
		Inmates generally spend 23 or more hours per day in their cells, with the additional hour spent either in a supervised one-man shower, or in an "outdoor" recreation area, generally a solid-walled pen twice the size of a cell and also used in solitary.
	www.icorrection.com /usa.html (1444 words)

	"Red Scare" by Bruce Clark
		The town Wallace so admired had been built by penal labor; the singers and musicians who performed for him were captives (albeit under strict instructions not to reveal the fact); even the local embroidery which he politely praised was the work of prisoners.
		From the mid-1950s, when hundreds of thousands of prisoners were released, penal labor ceased to play a significant role in the economy.
		She recounts the diet, kept at the bare minimum to extract useful labor out of the prisoners; the sexual abuse; the egregious horror of transport to the camps by train or ship; the shady deals between prisoner and warder; and the shifting relations between political prisoners and urkas, or common criminals.
	www.washingtonmonthly.com /features/2003/0304.clark.html (2540 words)

	Lalor, Cyclopaedia of Political Science, V.3, Entry 89, PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE: Library of Economics and Liberty
		By the act of 1857 transportation was formally abolished, but under the name of penal servitude it in fact continued until 1867, when the last cargo of convicts was sent to West Australia.
		In the subsequent history of Rome, transportation was known, under the name of relegatio ad insulam; and penal labor was required of offenders, who were employed upon public works and in mines and quarries.
		The last of these ends can only be secured by the introduction into prisons of organized and profitable labor, which has the further recommendation, that, by employing the prisoner's time and thoughts, it makes discipline more easy, while it also tends to reduce the cost of punishment.
	www.econlib.org /library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy859.html (5245 words)

	Laogai Research Foundation (laogai.org)
		He also noted that both the MOU and SOC fail to use the term "forced labor" but rather use "prison labor," the result of which was to leave the false impression that the Chinese Laogai is similar to the U.S. prison system, an argument that was made repeatedly during the MFN debate.
		According to the U.S. State Department Country Report on China for 2004, "The [Chinese] law prohibits forced and compulsory labor, and the Government denied that forced or compulsory labor was a problem; however, forced labor was a serious problem in penal institutions.
		Citizens were consigned without judicial process to penal labor institutions (see Section 1.c.) that, by law and policy, utilized labor as a means of reform and reeducation.
	www.laogai.org /news/newsdetail.php?id=2334 (1313 words)

	Case Study
		In essence, this provision of the Tariff Act of 1930 states that prison labor produced goods may not enter the United States, unless the United States is not able to produce that good solely on its own.
		There are several reasons including the humanitarian concern, the differences in the two penal systems and the cultural differences of the two nations, and also the xenophobic-economic fear placed in the hearts of many Americans.
		The overall opinion of American prison labor is in agreement with the justifications given by the Chinese government: that prison labor benefits both the prisoners and society.
	www.american.edu /projects/mandala/TED/prison.htm (2867 words)

	SB313.html
		Any court sentencing a defendant for a crime covered under this chapter may include in the sentence appropriate provisions for restitution to a county or municipality operating a program under this chapter.
		The Board of Corrections shall provide rules and regulations governing the use of labor by inmates from institutions under its jurisdiction.
		Title 42 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relating to penal institutions, is amended by striking subsection (d) of Code Section 42-1-5, relating to use of inmates for private gain, and inserting in lieu thereof the following:
	www.legis.state.ga.us /legis/2003_04/fulltext/sb313.htm (424 words)

	Welcome to English School Watch Organization - Korean labor law summary (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		The employer and worker will without delay report necessary matters, or be present whenever the Minister of Labor, a Labor Relations Commissions or Labor Inspector requests in relation to the enforcement of this Act.
		The term of any labor contract will not exceed one year except when a term is fixed as a requirement for the completion of a specific project.
		(1) The may request relief from the Labor Relations Commission if the worker is laid off, dismissed, suspended from employment, changed to another post, reduced in pay or subject to other punitive actions by the employer without justifiable reason.
	www.englishschoolwatch.org /kr_law02.shtml (926 words)

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