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	Pioneer Venus project - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The Pioneer Venus Orbiter was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978.
		From Venus orbit insertion to July 1980, periapsis was held between 142 and 253 km (at 17 degrees north latitude) to facilitate radar and ionospheric measurements.
		In May 1992 Pioneer Venus began the final phase of its mission, in which the periapsis was held between 150 and 250 km until the fuel ran out and atmospheric entry destroyed the spacecraft the following August.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Pioneer_Venus_project (1050 words)

	UCLA - IGPP Space Physics Tutorial - Pioneer Venus Missions
		The orbiter observed the surface of Venus with a radar altimeter and crude radar imager.
		The radius of Venus is 6052 km versus the terrestrial 6371 km, 95% of the Earth's radius.
		The convection of oxygen ions from the dayside to the nightside of Venus.
	www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu /ssc/tutorial/pvo_mission.html (5610 words)

	Venus Introduction
		Venus, the jewel of the sky, was once know by ancient astronomers as the morning star and evening star.
		Venus, which is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, is veiled by thick swirling cloud cover.
		This beautiful image of Venus is a mosaic of three images acquired by the Mariner 10 spacecraft on February 5, 1974.
	www.solarviews.com /eng/venus.htm (2376 words)

	World Almanac for Kids
		Except for the sun and the moon, Venus is the brightest object in the sky.
		Pioneer Venus 1, an orbiter launched in May 1978, and Pioneer Venus 2, consisting of five probes launched in August, both reached the planet in December.
		Venus rotates very slowly on its axis, and the direction is retrograde (opposite to that of earth).
	www.worldalmanacforkids.com /explore/space/venus.html (1309 words)

	Pioneer Space Probes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Pioneer 11 was launched in April of 1973 and reached Saturn on Sep 1, 1979.
		Pioneer Venus was launched on May 20, 1978 and was inserted into orbit around Venus on Dec 4, 1978 (198 day trip).
		Pioneer Venus launched a "multiprobe" consisting of five separate instrument packages on Aug 8, 1978 and it reached Venus on Dec 9, 1978 (123 day trip).
	hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu /hbase/solar/pioneer.html (268 words)

	Venus - Crystalinks (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Venus was known to ancient Babylonians around 1600 BC, and to the Mayan civilization (the Mayans developed a religious calendar based on Venus's motion) and must have been known long before in prehistoric times, given that it is the third brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon.
		Venus (and also Mercury) is not visible from Earth when it is full, since at that time it is at superior conjunction, rising and setting concomitantly with the Sun and hence lost in the Sun's glare.
		Venus is brightest when approximately 25% of its disk is illuminated; this typically occurs 37 days both before (in the evening sky) and after (in the morning sky), its inferior conjunction.
	www.crystalinks.com /venus.html (3353 words)

	Pioneer
		Pioneer 13 was launched in August 1978 and consisted of 3 small probes and 1 large probe.
		Pioneer 12 used radar to map the planet's surface, while Pioneer 13 deployed its four probes that were carried through the atmosphere by parachutes.
		Pioneer 12 orbited Venus for 14 years until it entered the atmosphere of Venus in 1992 and was destroyed.
	www.windows.ucar.edu /tour/link=/space_missions/pioneer.html (347 words)

	Pioneer
		Pioneer IV, a joint project of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and Jet Propulsion Laboratory under the direction of NASA, was launched by a Juno II rocket from the Atlantic Missile Range.
		Pioneer 11 was the second mission to investigate Jupiter and the outer solar system and the first to explore the planet Saturn and its main rings.
		In May 1992 Pioneer Venus began the final phase of its mission, in which the periapsis was held between 150 and 250 km until the fuel ran out and atmospheric entry destroyed the spacecraft.
	www.astronautix.com /project/pioneer.htm (1318 words)

	Pioneer Venus - Abstract
		Pioneer 10 was targeted to fly by the planet at a minimum distance of 3 Jupiter Radii from the center or 2 RJ above the clouds.
		Pioneer 11 was intended to fly even closer to Jupiter, but the exact targeting option were held open until after the Pioneer 10 encounter.
		Pioneer 10 had gained speed from the gravity field of Jupiter and became the first craft to achieve the velocity needed to escape from the solar system.
	www.tsgc.utexas.edu /archive/characterizations/pioneer_venus.html (1326 words)

	Tour the Solar System and Beyond - Venus
		Venus hides behind a persistent global shroud of sulfuric acid clouds in an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide.
		Oddly, Venus rotates in a direction opposite that of Earth, which means that if you were standing on Venus, you would see the sun rising in the west and setting in the east.
		The Pioneer Venus and Venera spacecraft were able to image the surface with radar, thus answering many of our questions about large-scale surface features, many more questions remained unanswered about the extent to which the surface has been shaped by volcanoes, plate tectonics, impact craters, and water and wind erosion.
	spacekids.hq.nasa.gov /osskids/animate/venus.html (751 words)

	The Pioneer Venus Orbiter
		Pioneer Venus consisted of two spacecraft to study Venus: the Orbiter and the Multiprobe.
		Its primary objective was to investigate the solar wind in the Venusian environment, map Venus' surface through a radar imaging system, and study the characteristics of the upper atmosphere and ionosphere.
		The homogeneity of the burst source population in space was studied on the basis of a sample of 225 observed gamma-ray bursts between September 1978 and July 1988 from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter.
	heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov /docs/heasarc/missions/pvo.html (821 words)

	Venus
		Venus is the second planet from the Sun and the sixth largest.
		Venus' rotation is somewhat unusual in that it is both very slow (243 Earth days per Venus day, slightly longer than Venus' year) and retrograde.
		The pressure of Venus' atmosphere at the surface is 90 atmospheres (about the same as the pressure at a depth of 1 km in Earth's oceans).
	www.seds.org /billa/tnp/venus.html (1239 words)

	Space Today Online -- Solar System -- Planet Venus
		Venus is similar in diameter and mass to Earth, yet that planet has evolved differently, with a surface temperature hotter than a kitchen oven — in fact, hot enough to melt lead.
		Venus is enveloped by a thick atmosphere that is a choking mixture of noxious gases.
		Pioneer 13, or Pioneer-Venus 2, was one big probe carrying four smaller probes to be dropped into the atmosphere of Venus.
	www.spacetoday.org /SolSys/Venus/VenusProbes.html (905 words)

	THE PIONEER PROGRAM (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Pioneers 10 and 11, which blazed a trail through the asteroid belt and the were first to explore Jupiter, Saturn, and the outer Solar System, are currently seeking the borders of the heliosphere, and will ultimately journey to the distant stars.
		Pioneers 6 and 9 traveled along orbits which carried them inward to a distance of 0.8 AU from the Sun; Pioneers 7 and 8 moved away from the Sun to a distance of 1.1 AU.
		Initially, Pioneer Venus' orbit was held in a controlled configuration but, since the spacecraft completed its low-altitude sampling of the upper atmosphere, the gravity of the Sun is gradually changing the orientation of the orbit and providing additional viewpoints for observing Venus and its near-space environment.
	vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov /er/seh/pion.html (5967 words)

	Pioneer Home Page: Describes the missions of Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and Pioneers 6 through 9 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Pioneer 10 was featured on the Star Date radio broadcast by the University of Texas McDonald Observatory on 2 March 2002 - the 30th anniversary of its launch.
		Pioneer 6 was featured on the Star Date radio broadcast by the University of Texas McDonald Observatory on 16 December 2000 - the 35th anniversary of its launch.
		Pioneer 6 is the oldest NASA spacecraft extant.
	spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov /Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html (1083 words)

	Life Beyond Earth - The Habitable Zone - Venus
		Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of 108,200,000 kilometers from the Sun.
		Pioneer Venus 1 orbited the planet, collecting data on surface heights and returning radar images, while Pioneer Venus 2 released three probes to the surface to collect atmospheric data.
		The interior of Venus is probably very similar to that of Earth: an iron core about 3000 km in radius, a molten rocky mantle comprising the majority of the planet.
	www.pbs.org /lifebeyondearth/alone/venus.html (982 words)

	Venus
		When Venus was first studied in modern times, scientists saw a beautiful world that was almost the size of Earth, and it had a thick cover of clouds.
		Venus' atmosphere is so thick that a barometric reading (a measure of pressure) would be between 90 to 100 times higher than Earth's, which is the equivalent on Earth of being underneath 1 km of water.
		Venus is the case of a runaway greenhouse effect.
	filer.case.edu /~sjr16/advanced/venus.html (1441 words)

	Venus with Visible and Radar Illumination
		The surface of Venus remained hidden until 1978 when the Pioneer Venus 1 spacecraft arrived and went into orbit about the planet on December 4th.
		The spacecraft used radar to map planet's surface, revealing a new Venus.
		Later in August of 1990 the Magellan spacecraft arrived at Venus and began its extensive planetary mapping mission.
	www.solarviews.com /cap/venus/venus2.htm (137 words)

	Sea and Sky's Tour of the Solar System: Venus
		Venus is so bright in the sky that it has been known since prehistoric times.
		Venus is sometimes referred to as Earth's sister planet, as both are nearly the same size and have nearly the same mass.
		Pioneer Venus was able to do some low resolution mapping of the surface.
	www.seasky.org /solarsystem/sky3c.html (453 words)

	Pioneer Program
		Pioneer 0, 1, and 2 were the United States' first lunar attempts.
		Pioneers 6,7,8, and 9 were the world's first solar monitoring network and provided warnings of increased solar activity which could affect Earth orbiting satellites and ground systems.
		The Pioneer Venus mission, consisting of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (Pioneer 12) and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe (Pioneer 13), was the United States' first long-term mission to observe Venus and studied the structure and composition of the Venusian atmosphere.
	leonardo.jpl.nasa.gov /msl/Programs/pioneer.html (265 words)

	Is the Planet Venus Young?
		I will look at Venus in what I consider the 3 major aspects of the planet: its atmosphere, its surface, and its interior, in order to explore the question of the age of Venus.
		Another argument seen is that the Pioneer Venus (PV) mission measured the infrared (IR) flux from Venus, and found a large excess emission, implying that the system was imbalanced strongly, and that Venus was found to be much warmer than equilibrium with insolation would presume.
		In order to apply this toy equation to Venus, he invoked "forced convection" to rapidly move magma from the interior to the surface, but then turned around and calculated the cooling as if there were no thermal gradient at all between the surface and the center.
	www.talkorigins.org /faqs/venus-young.html (3747 words)

	Spacecraft
		Venus in December of 1962, and it returned information which confirmed that Venus is a very hot (800 degrees Fahrenheit, now revised to 900 degrees F.) world with a cloud-covered atmosphere composed primarily of carbon dioxide.
		Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to flyby Jupiter in 1973.
		Pioneer 11 followed it in 1974, and then went on to become the first probe to study Saturn in 1979.
	www.seds.org /nineplanets/nineplanets/spacecraft.html (3254 words)

	ASTRONOMY (VENUS) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Venus' atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, permitting solar radiation to reach the surface but trapping the heat that would ordinarily be radiated back into space.
		A radio altimeter on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter provided the first means of seeing through the planet's dense cloud cover and determining surface features over almost the entire planet.
		Venus' predominant weather pattern is a high-altitude, high-speed circulation of clouds that contain sulfuric acid.
	www.jsc.nasa.gov /er/seh/venus.html (1485 words)

	History of Venus
		Galileo's observation of the phases of venus was valuable evidence in support of Copernicus's heliocentric theory of the solar system.
		It was later visited by many others (more than 20 in total so far), including Pioneer Venus and the Soviet Venera 7 the first spacecraft to land on another planet, and Venera 9 which brought the first photographs of the surface.
		It was subsequently visited by many others (more than 20 in all so far), including Pioneer Venus and the Soviet Venera 7 the first spacecraft to land on another planet, and Venera 9 which returned the first photographs of the surface (left).
	interactive.colum.edu /students/mLunkes/5/venus/history.html (1020 words)

	Pioneer venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		The Pioneer Venus mission had two components: an orbiter and a multiprobe.
		The probes separated from the bus 12.9 million kilometers (8 million miles) before arrival at Venus and entered the atmosphere in different regions of the planet at the same time.
		The Pioneer Venus spacecraft were intended to study the atmosphere and clouds, including the vertical structure; map the surface using radar; and determine the planet's shape and internal density distribution.
	web.ukonline.co.uk /buchert/missions/pioneer_venus.html (185 words)

	Pioneer Venus - Abstract (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		The Pioneer (to) Venus program consisted of an orbiter mission and a multiprobe mission.
		The orbiter spacecraft was designed to remotely sense the clouds and surface of Venus and to collect data on gravitational and magnetic fields, the upper atmosphere, and the ionosphere of Venus from a 75 degree inclined orbit.
		All four of the probes transmitted data until impact with the surface of Venus and one of the small probes continued to transmit data for 67 minutes after impact.
	www.tsgc.utexas.edu /archive/characterizations/pioneer_venus_2.html (375 words)

	Pioneer 13 Quicklook
		Pioneer Venus Multiprobe carried 4 probes designed to perform in-situ atmospheric measurements.
		Released from the carrier vehicle in mid-November 1978, the probes entered the atmosphere at 41,600 km/hr and carried a variety of experiments to measure chemical composition, pressure, density, and temperature of the mid-to-lower atmosphere.
		Radio signals from all four probes were also used to characterize winds, turbulence, and propogation in the atmosphere.
	leonardo.jpl.nasa.gov /msl/QuickLooks/pioneer13QL.html (533 words)

	ESA - Venus Express - Past missions to Venus
		NASA's Pioneer Venus mission (1978), the Soviet Union's Venera 15 and 16 missions (1983-1984), and NASA's Magellan radar mapping mission (1990-1994) provided together a comprehensive picture of a dry world, with landscapes shaped by volcanic and intense geological activity.
		Later on, the discovery of the night-side thermal emissions from the deep inside the atmosphere of Venus provided an effective tool to peek through the dense clouds and study the lower atmospheric layers.
		The Galileo and Cassini spacecraft were the first to use this phenomena during their short fly-bys en route to Jupiter and Saturn.
	www.esa.int /SPECIALS/Venus_Express/SEMS5N808BE_0.html (416 words)

	APOD: May 7, 1997 - Ultraviolet Venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Explanation: The forecast for Venus is cloudy, cloudy, cloudy.
		The thick atmosphere was photographed above in ultraviolet light in 1979 by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter.
		Whether or not Venus has a moon was the center of a great controversy in the 1700s and 1800s.
	antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov /apod/ap970507.html (124 words)

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