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Topic: Pioneer Venus project

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	Pioneer Home Page: Describes the missions of Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and Pioneers 6 through 9 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Pioneer 10 was featured on the Star Date radio broadcast by the University of Texas McDonald Observatory on 2 March 2002 - the 30th anniversary of its launch.
		Pioneer 6 was featured on the Star Date radio broadcast by the University of Texas McDonald Observatory on 16 December 2000 - the 35th anniversary of its launch.
		Pioneer 6 is the oldest NASA spacecraft extant.
	spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov /Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html (1083 words)

	Venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Venus is 108 million km from the Sun (0.72AU) and is the second of the terrestrial planets.
		The atmosphere of Venus is composed mainly of carbon dioxide (96%).
		Venus has an iron core of about 600km in diameter, a molten rocky mantle compromising the majority of the planet and a crust which is a lot stronger and thicker than anyone predicted.
	www.evula.org /solarsystem/venus.html (608 words)

	The Pioneer Venus Orbiter Entry Phase
		The orbital inclination was 105.6°, and the latitude of periapsis was near 17° N. The Pioneer Venus instruments are described in IEEE Trans.
		The orbiter periapsis altitude for the entire Pioneer Venus mission is shown as a function of time in Figure 1.
		ionospheres on the nightside of Venus, Icarus, 51, 271-282, 1982.
	www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu /~strange/pvo_entry/pioneer.html (1778 words)

	Pioneer Venus project - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Pioneer Venus 1, Pioneer Venus Orbiter was launched in 1978 and studied the planet for more than a decade after orbital insertion in 1978.
		The Pioneer Venus Orbiter was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978.
		From Venus orbit insertion to July 1980, periapsis was held between 142 and 253 km (at 17 degrees north latitude) to facilitate radar and ionospheric measurements.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Pioneer_Venus_project (1061 words)

	Venus: Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere
		Venus is sometimes characterized as Earth's 'twin' because of its close proximity in solar system location (~ 0.72 AU heliocentric distance compared to 1.0 AU) and its similar size (~ 6053 km radius compared to - 6371 km radius), but other close resemblances are few.
		The consequences for the space environment and atmosphere are numerous, ranging from the presence of an 'induced' magnetotail in the wake, to an ionosphere and upper atmosphere that are constantly being scavenged by the passing solar wind.
		During the primary Pioneer Venus mission, which occurred at a time of high solar activity when the planetary ionospheres are densest, this boundary between the solar wind and ionosphere proper occurred at an average altitude of about 300 km, flaring to ~ 800 km average altitude near the terminator.
	www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu /personnel/russell/papers/venus_mag (1853 words)

	Pioneer (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Pioneer 13 was launched in August 1978 and consisted of 3 small probes and 1 large probe.
		Pioneer 12 used radar to map the planet's surface, while Pioneer 13 deployed its four probes that were carried through the atmosphere by parachutes.
		Pioneer 12 orbited Venus for 14 years until it entered the atmosphere of Venus in 1992 and was destroyed.
	www.windows.ucar.edu /tour/link=/space_missions/pioneer.html (347 words)

	Venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		However, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day; to an observer on the surface of Venus the time from one sunrise to the next would be 116.75 days.
		Venus is currently moonless, though the asteroid 2002 VE presently maintains a quasi-orbital relationship with it.
		Venus transits the face of the Sun on 2004-06-08.
	www.askmore.net /en/Venus.htm (6034 words)

	StarChild: The planet Venus
		Venus and Earth are similar in size, composition, and mass.
		Venus rotates slowly on its axis in a clockwise direction, which is referred to as a "retrograde" rotation because it is the opposite of the other eight planets.
		As with the other inner planets, the surface of Venus has been shaped by impact craters, tectonic activity, and volcanoes which scientists believe to be ongoing.
	starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov /docs/StarChild/solar_system_level2/venus.html (277 words)

	Is the Planet Venus Young?
		I will look at Venus in what I consider the 3 major aspects of the planet: its atmosphere, its surface, and its interior, in order to explore the question of the age of Venus.
		Another argument seen is that the Pioneer Venus (PV) mission measured the infrared (IR) flux from Venus, and found a large excess emission, implying that the system was imbalanced strongly, and that Venus was found to be much warmer than equilibrium with insolation would presume.
		In order to apply this toy equation to Venus, he invoked "forced convection" to rapidly move magma from the interior to the surface, but then turned around and calculated the cooling as if there were no thermal gradient at all between the surface and the center.
	www.talkorigins.org /faqs/venus-young.html (3747 words)

	Earth. The only biosphere in the Solar System that habors life : Etacude.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Beside the Sun and Moon, Venus is the brightest celestial object, shine with steady bright white light.
		Venus has no satellites and no intrinsic magnetic field, but the solar wind rushing by Venus creates a pseudo-field around the planet.
		Pioneer Venus project - Venus exploration missions consist of a Venus orbiter (ended in May 1992) and several small probes.
	sciencepark.etacude.com /astronomy/venus.php (831 words)

	ESA - Venus Express - Tribute to the cryptic planet
		Venus, the ‘Morning Star’, the second closest planet to the Sun after Mercury and our closest planetary neighbour, has fascinated mankind from the earliest times.
		Since the beginning of the space era, Venus has been an attractive subject for planetary science and it was one of the first natural targets to explore, due to its vicinity to Earth – twice as close to Earth as Mars at the closest approach point.
		Observers soon realised that Venus is an entirely different, exotic and inhospitable world, hidden behind a curtain of dense clouds of noxious gases.
	www.esa.int /SPECIALS/Venus_Express/SEMX16808BE_0.html (411 words)

	Adler Planetarium / CyberSpace / Planets / Venus / The Exploration of Venus
		This picture is an ultraviolet image of Venus taken by the Pioneer Orbiter in February of 1979.
		The Pioneer Venus mission had two components: an orbiter and a multiprobe.
		The orbiter examined Venus' clouds in multiple wavelengths, measured for magnetic fields, and acted as a communications relay for its lander.
	www.adlerplanetarium.org /cyberspace/planets/venus/exploration.html (965 words)

	ESA - Venus Express - Past missions to Venus
		NASA's Pioneer Venus mission (1978), the Soviet Union's Venera 15 and 16 missions (1983-1984), and NASA's Magellan radar mapping mission (1990-1994) provided together a comprehensive picture of a dry world, with landscapes shaped by volcanic and intense geological activity.
		Later on, the discovery of the night-side thermal emissions from the deep inside the atmosphere of Venus provided an effective tool to peek through the dense clouds and study the lower atmospheric layers.
		The Galileo and Cassini spacecraft were the first to use this phenomena during their short fly-bys en route to Jupiter and Saturn.
	www.esa.int /SPECIALS/Venus_Express/SEMS5N808BE_0.html (416 words)

	NASA Contacts Oldest Spacecraft on 35th Anniversary
		Probes 6-9 are represented at far left, joined by Pioneers 10, 11 (second model from left) and the Pioneer Venus craft.
		During the downlink, data dribbled down to Earth from Pioneer 6 at a pokey 16 bits per second.
		During its decades in space, Pioneer has steadily orbited the Sun at a mean distance of 0.8 AU, or 74 million miles (119 million kilometers).
	www.space.com /news/spaceagencies/pioneer_6_contact_001209.html (548 words)

	NASA - NASA TO RELEASE FIRST IMAGES FROM CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVATORYFAMED NASA PIONEER PROJECT MANAGER CHARLES HALL DEAD ...
		Under Hall's leadership, the Pioneer Project Office managed the development of and operated the Pioneer 6-9 series of Solar Wind Observatories, the Pioneer 10 and 11 Interplanetary Spacecraft, and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, Bus and Entry probes.
		Soon after NASA was formed, Hall helped persuade the Agency to develop the Pioneer 6-9 series of spacecraft, which examined the solar environment from orbits separate from the Earth's.
		Hall also managed Pioneer Venus, consisting of an orbiter and a set of four probes that were sent into Venus' atmosphere.
	www.nasa.gov /lb/centers/ames/news/releases/1999/99_52AR.html (843 words)

	Pioneer program - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Pioneer 10 and 11 are the most famous probes in the Pioneer program, the first probes to visit the outer planets, and the first to go beyond the orbit of Pluto
		There were a number of such missions in the program, but the most notable were Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, which explored the outer planets and left the solar system.
		He suggested "Pioneer" as the name of the probe since "the Army had already launched and orbited the Explorer satellite and their Public Information Office was identifying the Army as 'Pioneers in Space,'" and by adopting the name the Air Force would "make a 'quantum jump' as to who really [were] the 'Pioneers in space.'"
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Pioneer_program (736 words)

	Venus
		Pioneer Venus Project: This site describes the scientific capabilities of the instruments carried by the planetary orbiter and the four atmospheric entry probes.
		Life on Venus: A Barren World?: Chapter 6 of David Grinspoon's book, Venus Revealed, in which he speculates about the possibility that life might exist in the clouds of Venus.
		Life on Venus and its implications for other worlds: Discussion regarding possibility of life on ancient Venus and life in cloud layers today.
	www.astro.utoronto.ca /~ast251/resources/venus.html (501 words)

	Drilling into the Surface of Venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		The Pioneer Venus orbiter operated for a remarkable length of time, from December 1978 until October 1992.
		On Venus, the relative abundance of this isotope was about 25 percent of terrestrial values.
		In a perpetual dead calm, the surface of Venus is almost untouched by wind erosion.
	www.mentallandscape.com /V_Venera11.htm (3379 words)

	venus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Other works, such as C. Lewis's 1943 Perelandra or Isaac Asimov's 1954 Lucky Starr and the Oceans of Venus, drew from a vision of a Cambrian-like Venus covered by a near planet-wide ocean filled with exotic aquatic life.
		^ Slipher V.M. A Spectrographic Investigation of the Rotation Velocity of Venus, Astronomische Nachrichten, v.
		See also astronomical objects and the solar system's list of objects, sorted by radius or mass.
	hometown.aol.de /podatakzak/wo-43538.html (5684 words)

	Va Earth Science - Space Exploration (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Pioneer Project - Describes the missions of Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and Pioneers 6 through 9
		The Chandra X-ray Observatory Project - Gateway to the universe of x-ray astronomy!
		COBE Project - 1 micrometer to 1cm wavelengths
	vtso.geol.vt.edu /vesr/astro/vesrexp.html (47 words)

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