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Topic: Plutonium 239

	Plutonium - MSN Encarta
		Plutonium, symbol Pu, radioactive metallic element that is used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
		Isotopes of plutonium were first prepared and studied by the American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg and his associates at the University of California at Berkeley in 1941.
		Plutonium is the most economically important of the transuranic elements because plutonium-239 readily undergoes fission and can be both used and produced in quantity in nuclear reactors (see Nuclear Energy).
	uk.encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761577064/Plutonium.html (271 words)

	Plutonium - MSN Encarta
		Isotopes of plutonium were first prepared by the American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg and his associates at the University of California at Berkeley in 1940.
		Chemically, plutonium is reactive, its properties somewhat resembling those of the rare earth elements.
		Plutonium is the most economically important of the transuranium elements because plutonium-239 readily undergoes fission and can be both used and produced in quantity in nuclear reactors (see Nuclear Energy).
	encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761577064/Plutonium.html (309 words)

	La France nucleaire/Nuclear France: PLUTONIUM (ENGLISH)
		Plutonium 241 is rarely used separately because of the difficulty of producing it in large quantity, the high cost of its production, its brief half-life, and its higher radioactivity than plutonium 239.
		Plutonium oxide is used in a mixture of natural uranium or depleted uranium in Mox fuel (mixed uranium and plutonium oxides) for fast breeder and light water reactors.
		Plutonium 241 (half-life 13.2 years), which is found in varying quantities in all forms of plutonium disintegrates into americium 241, which emits gamma as well as alpha radiation.
	www.francenuc.org /en_mat/plutonium_e.htm (1566 words)

	plutonium. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
		Plutonium is a silver-gray radioactive metal that has six allotropic forms (see allotropy).
		Plutonium, the second transuranium element, is named for Pluto, the second planet beyond Uranus.
		Plutonium is important for its use in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.
	www.bartleby.com /65/pl/plutoniu.html (368 words)

	Plutonium - Encyclopedia of Earth
		Plutonium, both that routinely made in power reactors and that from dismantled nuclear weapons, is a major energy source in the nuclear fuel cycle.
		Plutonium is a by-product of the fission process in nuclear reactors, due to neutron capture by uranium-238 in particular.
		Plutonium for weapons is made differently, in simple reactors (usually fuelled with natural uranium) operated for that purpose, with frequent fuel changes (i.e., low burn-up).
	www.eoearth.org /article/Plutonium (3134 words)

	Half-Life of Plutonium-239
		Plutonium belongs to the class of elements called transuranic elements whose atomic number is higher than 92, the atomic number of uranium.
		Plutonium is the most economically important of the transuranic elements.
		Plutonium has 15 isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 232 to 246.
	hypertextbook.com /facts/JaniceChing.shtml (511 words)

	Citizen Kurchatov - Plutonium
		Although theorized earlier, plutonium was an unknown element to scientists until it was discovered in 1941 in America.
		The plutonium is then extracted and separated in a plutonium purification plant.
		Plutonium was preferred over uranium for atomic bombs because it is a more efficient fissionable fuel.
	www.pbs.org /opb/citizenk/arzamas16/plutonium.html (130 words)

	American Nuclear Society - Unviersity of Texas Chapter - Everything that is nuclear
		Plutonium is a metal, one in the series of transuranic elements - those heavier than uranium.
		About 98 per cent of the plutonium in spent fuel at the time of discharge from the reactor can be reclaimed; the balance decays away prior to processing or remains in waste products.
		Recycling both uranium and plutonium recovered from spent fuel would reduce the amount of uranium ore concentrate required by the nuclear industry up to the end of the century by approximately 400,000 tons or about 23 per cent.
	www.me.utexas.edu /~ans/info/plutonium.htm (1315 words)

	Plutonium \| Radiation Protection Program \| US EPA (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Plutonium is considered a man-made element, although scientists have found trace amounts of naturally occurring plutonium produced under highly unusual geologic circumstances.
		The plutonium in the bomb undergoes fission in an arrangement that assures enormous energy generation and destructive potential.
		Plutonium that reaches body organs generally stays in the body for decades and continues to expose the surrounding tissue to radiation.
	www.epa.gov /radiation/radionuclides/plutonium.htm (1827 words)

	plutonium
		Plutonium has assumed the position of dominant importance among the transuranium elements because of its successful use as an explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons and the place which it holds as a key material in the development of industrial use of nuclear power.
		Plutonium concn depends on plant species, on the type and age and status of vegetation; on the pH; cation exchange capacity; mineral and organic composition of the soil; and on the physical and chemical form of contamination; as well as its duration.
		The highest uptake of plutonium in cheat grass occurs, for example, when plutonium is present in the soil as the stable citrate complex or as a complex with macromulecules, like humic acid or fulvic acid.
	www.speclab.com /elements/plutonium.htm (1092 words)

	Marshall Islands: Plutonium Urinalysis (Bioassay) Monitoring (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Plutonium urinalysis is a very sensitive in-vitro bioassay measurement technique used to determine the amount of plutonium in human urine as a means of estimating the systemic burden (or total amount of plutonium) in the human body.
		Plutonium urinalysis is a measurement technique that ultimately provides information to individuals on the amount of plutonium they have in their bodies.
		Although plutonium is expected to be a minor contributor to the total manmade dose, it is a concern to people living in the northern Marshall Islands who are potentially exposed to elevated levels of plutonium in the environment from close-in or regional fallout deposition.
	eed.llnl.gov /mi/plutonium.php (2893 words)

	ATSDR - ToxFAQs™: Plutonium
		Plutonium is a silvery white metal that exists as a solid under normal conditions.
		When plutonium decays, it divides into two parts-a small part that is called "alpha" radiation and a large part called a daughter.
		People who live near facilities that use plutonium in their operations may be exposed to it from releases to the air.
	www.atsdr.cdc.gov /tfacts143.html (902 words)

	World Nuclear Association : Plutonium
		Plutonium, both that routinely made in power reactors and that from dismantled nuclear weapons, is a valuable energy source in the nuclear fuel cycle.
		Plutonium is formed in uranium fuel during the operation of a reactor.
		Plutonium has substantial potential as a source of energy, and in fact is a significant contributor to the energy produced in a uranium-fuelled reactor.
	www.world-nuclear.org /info/inf15.html (4020 words)

	[No title]
		On the basis of the measured and inferred plutonium concentration in the air of New York and a constant inhalation rate of 20 cu m/day, inhalation intake reflects the amt of radioactivity released by nuclear weapons tests.
		At the end of 1973, it was estimated that 4.2 tons of (239)plutonium and (240) plutonium was dispersed in the atmosphere.
		Plutonium 238 is hundreds of times more radioactive than the kind of plutonium used in nuclear weaponry, plutonium 239.
	www.lycos.com /info/plutonium--nuclear-weapons.html (513 words)

	Plutonium Health Risks
		Plutonium can also be used as a fuel in certain types of nuclear reactors where the fission process is controlled so that large quantities of energy are released more slowly to make steam and produce electricity.
		Plutonium is usually insoluble in water, so plutonium particles that land on lakes and streams usually settle to the bottom in the sediment.
		Plutonium particles in the air can deposit on the soil, where adults or children may work or play, or on water, which may be a source for drinking, irrigation of crops or recreation.
	www.cdphe.state.co.us /rf/plutoniu.htm (1603 words)

	Plutonium Production - Nuclear Weapons
		Plutonium has assumed the position of dominant importance among the trasuranium elements because of its successful use as an explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons and the place which it holds as a key material in the development of industrial use of nuclear power.
		Plutonium (and uranium) metal may be produced by the reaction of an active metal (calcium or magnesium) with a fluoride salt at elevated temperature in a sealed metal vessel (called a “bomb”).
		Plutonium and uranium from spent fuel (as well as enriched uranium from research reactor cores), is reclaimed by chopping up and dissolving the fuel elements in acid, subjecting the solution to solvent-extraction and ion-exchange processes, and chemically converting the plutonium and uranium in the resulting liquids to metallic or oxide forms.
	www.fas.org /nuke/intro/nuke/plutonium.htm (5888 words)

	Plutonium Summary
		Plutonium is a transuranium element, one of the elements that follows uranium in Row 7 of the periodic table.
		The critical mass for an unreflected sphere of plutonium is 16 kg, but through the use of a neutron-reflecting tamper the pit of plutonium in a fission bomb is reduced to 10 kg, which is a sphere with a diameter of 10 cm.
		In weapons applications, plutonium is often alloyed with another metal (e.g., delta phase with a small percentage of gallium) to increase phase stability and thereby enhance workability and ease of handling.
	www.bookrags.com /Plutonium (5459 words)

	Brian Kane
		Plutonium is element number 94, lying between neptunium and americium in the actinide group on the periodic table.
		Plutonium uptake from soil and water by plants is very small; less than one ten-thousandth of the amount in the soil.
		Plutonium is therefore called a "bone seeker." Plutonium in bones binds to salioproteins on the bone surface.
	filebox.vt.edu /users/brkane2/plutonium.html (2173 words)

	IEER Factsheet \| Plutonium
		Plutonium combines with oxygen, carbon, and fluorine to form compounds which are used in the nuclear industry, either directly or as intermediates.
		Plutonium metal is insoluble in nitric acid and plutonium is slightly soluble in hot, concentrated nitric acid.
		However, when plutonium dioxide and uranium dioxide form a solid mixture, as in spent fuel from nuclear reactors, then the solubility of plutonium dioxide in nitric acid is enhanced due to the fact that uranium dioxide is soluble in nitric acid.
	www.ieer.org /fctsheet/pu-props.html (1525 words)

	IEER:Health Effects of Plutonium
		Plutonium may be ingested by accidental ingestion of plutonium-containing soil, or through eating and drinking contaminated food and water.
		In general, plutonium in the form of large particles produces a smaller amount of biological damage, and therefore poses a smaller risk of disease, than the same amount of plutonium divided up into smaller particles.
		One of the few attempts to analyze the effects of microgram quantities of plutonium on exposed human subjects was a long-term study of 26 "white male subjects" from the Manhattan Project exposed to plutonium at Los Alamos in 1944 and 1945, where the first nuclear weapons were made.
	www.ieer.org /ensec/no-3/puhealth.html (1390 words)

	NRC: Fact Sheet on Plutonium
		If plutonium oxide is inhaled, part of it, usually between 20 and 60 percent depending upon such factors as the size of the particles, is retained in the lungs.
		Plutonium nitrate’s behavior in the body is similar to plutonium oxide, but it moves out of the lungs more rapidly.
		Since plutonium was discovered in 1941, it was not a part of the extensive radiological experience of the pre-World War II decades.
	www.nrc.gov /reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/plutonium.html (928 words)

	CDC Radiation Emergencies \| Radioisotope Brief: Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Most plutonium in the environment is in the form of microscopic particles that are the remnants of nuclear weapons testing and nuclear reactor accidents.
		Plutonium can enter the blood stream from the lungs and travel to the kidneys, meaning that the blood and the kidneys will be exposed to alpha particles.
		Plutonium that is ingested from contaminated food or water does not pose a serious threat to humans because the stomach does not absorb plutonium easily and so it passes out of the body in the feces.
	www.bt.cdc.gov /radiation/isotopes/plutonium.asp (446 words)

	It's Elemental - The Element Plutonium
		Plutonium was first produced by Glenn T. Seaborg, Joseph W. Kennedy, Edward M. McMillan and Arthur C. Wohl by bombarding an isotope of uranium, uranium-238, with deuterons that had been accelerated in a device called a cyclotron.
		Although they conducted their work at the University of California in 1941, their discovery was not revealed to the rest of the scientific community until 1946 because of wartime security concerns.
		Plutonium's most stable isotope, plutonium-244, has a half-life of about 82,000,000 years.
	education.jlab.org /itselemental/ele094.html (173 words)

	CMS—Plutonium Up Close (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		As with the atoms of all metals, plutonium atoms form structures on scales as small as a billionth of a meter.
		When an atom of plutonium-239 (the isotope of plutonium used in nuclear weapons) decays, it splits into an alpha particle--a helium nucleus with two protons and two neutrons--and an atom of uranium-235.
		Using samples of plutonium from old, disassembled nuclear warheads and comparing their resulting micrographs to those from newly cast plutonium, the researchers can better determine the kinds and amounts of defects and changes that occur over time.
	www-cms.llnl.gov /s-t/plutonium.html (1255 words)

	"+title+" (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Plutonium is a heavy metal that exists only at traces levels in the natural environment.
		Plutonium 239 and 241 are equally fissile; however it is plutonium 239 that is generally used for energy and weapon production.
		Plutonium 241 is rarely used separately due to difficulties associated with its large-scale production, an elevated production cost, a short half-life, and a greater radioactivity than that of plutonium 239.
	www.greenpeace.fr /stop-plutonium/en/plutonium.php3 (374 words)

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