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	Age of Enlightenment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The Enlightenment began then, from the belief in a rational, orderly and comprehensible universe—then proceeded, in stages, to form a rational and orderly organization of knowledge and the state, such as what is found in the idea of Deism.
		The Enlightenment was a time when the solar system was truly "discovered": with the accurate calculation of orbits, such as Halley's comet, the discovery of the first planet since antiquity, Uranus by William Herschel, and the calculation of the mass of the Sun using Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
		Alternatively, the Enlightenment was used as a powerful symbol to argue for the supremacy of rationalism and rationalization, and therefore any attack on it is connected to despotism and madness, for example in the writings of Gertrude Himmelfarb and Robert Nozick.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/The_Enlightenment (4802 words)

	Enlightenment in Poland - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The period of Polish Enlightenment started in 1730s/1740s, reached its height during the reign of last of Polish kings, Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century), started declining with the destruction of Poland in the final third partition of Poland (1795) and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
		Polish political system was the almost the opposite of the absolute monarchy: Polish king's were elected and their position was very weak, with most of the powers in the hands of the parliament (Sejm).
		Polish reforms desired the elimination of laws that transformed their system into a near-anarchy, resulting from abuse of consensus voting in Sejm (liberum veto) that paralyzed the Commonwealth, especially during the times of the Wettin dynasty, reducing Poland from a major European player to the puppet of its neighbours.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland (778 words)

	Enlightenment - Britannica Concise (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Enlightenment - a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and man were synthesized into a worldview that gained wide assent and that instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics.
		Polish literature - Polish literature was greatly influenced by the country's close contact with western Europe, especially with France and England, during the Enlightenment.
		Polish writers were inspired in particular by the idea of saving the national culture from the disastrous effects of partitions and foreign rule.
	concise.britannica.com /ebc/article-9363738 (642 words)

	Polish literature on Encyclopedia.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		The early literature of Poland was written in Latin: its chief figures included the historians Martin Gallus (12th cent.) and Jan Dlugosz (1415-80), the astronomer Copernicus, and the poet Klemens Janitius (1516-43).
		Mikolaj Rej (1505-69) is considered the father of Polish literature; other writers of this period are the great poet Jan Kochanowski ; the humanitarian Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503-72); Piotr Skarga (1536-1612), a spokesman for the Counter Reformation ; the historian Martin Bielski ; and the political writer Stanislaus Orzechowski (1513-66).
		Modern Polish journalism was born, and light drama flourished under the playwrights Wojciech Bogusławski (1757-1829) and Franciszek Zablocki (1754-1821).
	www.encyclopedia.com /html/section/polishli_earlyhistory.asp (933 words)

	The Enlightenment (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		The Enlightenment (The Age of Enlightenment) was an intellectual movement in 18th Century Europe.
		One of the influences on the Enlightenment consisted of reports of Catholic priests in China which served as a model for a secular enlighteneddespot.
		The Enlightenment was also marked by the rise of capitalism and the wideavailability of printed materials.
	www.therfcc.org /the-enlightenment-2199.html (522 words)

	The Roots of Polish National Identity
		Polish Enlightenment was an organic part of European Enlightenment, which was first of all an intellectual movement dominating in the second half of 18th century the cultural life in such countries as France, Great Britain, German states, Austria.
		Enlightenment suggested that the whole of human society and culture could be organized in a rational way, that is: its organization shouldn't be based on customs and traditions but on the objective laws of reason, since only these can guarantee its proper and smooth functioning.
		A matter of dispute between the Polish and German historians are the ethnic origins of Mikołaj Kopernik, the astronomer, however, the decisive argument is that he was the subject of Polish king and represented Polish science and Polish political interests abroad.
	info-poland.buffalo.edu /classroom/roots.html (4110 words)

	Sarmatian Review XVII.2: Wasko
		The epoch of Romanticism is crucial to the development of Polish literature, yet recent evaluations of Polish Romanticism have been based on premises drawn from the methodologies of nonliterary studies, primarily those of history and sociology.
		Polish literature has often played a synthesizing role in regard to Polish culture, and Polish Romantic literature has to be seen as such a synthesizer, before it is seen as an instance of the general European trend called Romanticism or nationalism (I am referring here to Andrzej Walicki's works).
		Polish Romantics belonged to the first generation born after the partitions of Old Poland, and naturally their interest in the national past was strong.
	www.ruf.rice.edu /~sarmatia/497/wasko.html (5639 words)

	ipedia.com: The Age of Enlightenment Article
		The goal of the Enlightenment was to establish an authoritative ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge based on an "enlightened" rationality (also logocentric).
		The Enlightenment began then, from the belief in a rational, orderly and comprehensible universe - and proceded, in stages, to demand a rational and orderly organization of knowledge and the state, such as found in the idea of Deism.
		The Enlightenment created then, the ideas, of liberty, property and rationality which are still recognizable as the basis for most political philosophy even to the present era: that is, of a free individual being most free within the context of a state which provides stability of the laws.
	www.ipedia.com /the_age_of_enlightenment.html (1821 words)

	557lec3&4Decline&PartitionsofPoland (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Polish troops occupied the Kremlin in Moscow for a short while in 1612, but had to leave in early November in face of a national uprising.
		The Polish victory - due to a combination of good Polish defense and the exhaustion of Swedish armies - was attributed to the miracle-working picture of Mary, the Mother of God and her child in the monastery church.
		The concluding chapter is a comparison between the Polish "revolutions" of 1788-92 (the period of the Four year Seym and its reforms) and that of 1980-1990 (Solidarity, underground civic society, collapse of communism).
	raven.cc.ku.edu /~eceurope/hist557/lect3-4.htm (7441 words)

	Poland History
		Polish cultural and political Enlightenment resulted in period of reforms, which culminated with the adoption of the new Constitution on May 3, 1791.
		Pilsudski organized the "Polish Riflemen's League," eventually the core of his renowned First Brigade, which fought for the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I. Although the two men were diametrically opposed in their political thinking, their ideals led them along the same path to Polish independence.
		Polish workers understood how their economic relations with the Soviet Union had been rigged to the detriment of the Polish economy and in 1980 the Solidarity Movement exploded with a series of strikes on the Baltic Coast and in the industrial region of Upper Silesia.
	www.snookems.com /poland/phistory.htm (8510 words)

	History of Poland (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Poles outside the nobility were now considered part of the national fabric and the concept of Polish nationalism became an enduring 19th century concept; ensuring the nation's survival and eventual rebirth.
		This attempt to revive the Polish state, however, was ultimately doomed with the defeat of Bonaparte.
		Polish participation in the Revolutions of 1848 was muted, as it followed too closely in the wake of the ill-fated 1846 uprising.
	www.poland-embassy.si /eng/poland/history4.htm (1735 words)

	Encyclopedia article on The Age of Enlightenment [EncycloZine] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Template:Histphil The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe.
		The goal of the Enlightenment was to establish an authoritative ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge based on an "enlightened" rationality.
		The Enlightenment, an sich occupies a central role in the justification for the movement known as modernism.
	encyclozine.com /The_Age_of_Enlightenment (3298 words)

	Enlightenment -- Encyclopædia Britannica
		French Siècle De Lumières (“Age of the Enlightened”), German Aufklärung, a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and man were synthesized into a worldview that gained wide assent and that instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics.
		Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and the celebration of reason, the power by which man understands the...
		The thinkers of the Enlightenment realized that for all of history the hand of law had been turned against the masses and in favor of the few.
	www.britannica.com /eb/article-9032680 (771 words)

	The School of History, Queen's University Belfast (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Having realised that nirvana could be found in the study of eighteenth-century European history, his initial research was on the Anglophilia of the last King of Poland.
		He is now writing a monograph for Oxford University Press on the Polish Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1788-92, and researching a book exploring issues of surrogate paternity and male friendship in mid-eighteenth-century Europe, approached via the relationship between the British diplomat and libertine poet Sir Charles Hanbury Williams (1708-59) and the young Stanislaw Poniatowski.
		He is happy to supervise research students on diverse aspects of eighteenth-century European intellectual, cultural, religious, political and diplomatic history, and on topics in Polish history from the fourteenth century onwards.
	www.qub.ac.uk /ss/esh/rbutterwick.htm (604 words)

	The Enlightenment (from Polish literature) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
		The Enlightenment (from Polish literature) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
		Polish literature was greatly influenced by the country's close contact with western Europe, especially with France and England, during the Enlightenment.
		West Slavic language belonging to the Lekhitic subgroup and closely related to Czech, Slovak, and the Sorbian languages of eastern Germany; it is spoken by the majority of the present population of Poland.
	www.britannica.com /eb/article-60643 (841 words)

	Polish Studies Faculty at University of Illinois, Chicago
		Zaluski, I.V. Introduction to Polish Literature I. Old Polish literature from medieval Latin and vernacular texts to masterpieces of the Polish Enlightenment.
		Zaluski, I. and Gasienica-Byrcyn, A. Polish Composition and Conversation I, II.
		Polish American Students Association: The Association organized activities, both social and educational, for its members and the wider community.
	info-poland.buffalo.edu /student/uichicago.html (1503 words)

	Polish Arts Club of Buffalo (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		In celebration of Polish Heritage Month, the Polish Arts Club is sponsoring a lecture by Wanda Slawinska entitled "The Evolution of Polish Constitutional Democracy." In her lecture Mrs.
		Slawinska plans to also address the question of who were some of the framers of the Polish Constitution and, in particular to discuss the figure of Hugo Kollataj, a priest, a royal Vice-Chancellor, a political and educational activist and one of the most brilliant ideologues of the Polish Enlightenment.
		That kinship is likely one of the reasons that Polish opinion polls continue to indicate that of all the nations in the world, Poles most admire the United States.
	freenet.buffalo.edu /pacb/calendar/archive/democracy.html (384 words)

	Polish Literature in English Translation: 18th Century
		No English translations of her work appear to be in print at this time.
		Lyrics in Polish and English, with audio in Polish.
		A Concise History of Polish Theater from the Eleventh to the Twentieth Centuries.
	home.nycap.rr.com /polishlit/18.html (709 words)

	Sarmatian Review XVII.2: Brintlinger
		Professor Michael Mikos' anthology, the third volume of his survey of Polish literature in English, is an important contribution to the future of Polish literature in the United States and other English-speaking countries.
		This collection of Polish texts from the Baroque and Enlightenment periods includes over two hundred poetic and prose items, many of which have been rendered into English for the first time.
		Polish Baroque and Enlightenment Literature: An Anthology is a worthy successor to Mikos' previous volumes.
	www.ruf.rice.edu /~sarmatia/497/brint.html (918 words)

	Canadian Journal of History: Constitution and Reform in Eighteenth-Century Poland: The Constitution of 3 May 1791
		The 3 May Constitution of 1791 was a major effort of the reform-minded Polish elite to provide a form of government and legislation that would reverse the political decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		Although the Constitution remained in force for only about fourteen months and the process of reforms was terminated by the second partition of Poland in 1792, it had considerable symbolic value for Poles throughout the nineteenth century, providing an opportunity for celebrations and serving as a propagandistic device used by various political groups.
		All lead to the interpretation according to which the negotiations with Russia in 1792 were doomed to fail and with it the Constitution and the whole reform movement.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_qa3686/is_200204/ai_n9027251 (762 words)

	Polish (Pol)
		Political, socioeconomic, and cultural developments since the first Polish state, the union with Lithuania, the struggle for independence, Communist rule to the present.
		Old Polish literature from medieval Latin and vernacular texts to masterpieces of the Polish Enlightenment.
		Main trends in Polish drama, leading playwrights, their aesthetics and philosophy in the context of European drama and from the Renaissance to the present.
	www.uic.edu /ucat/newcourses/polxucat.html (524 words)

	Polish literature. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
		Mikolaj Rej (1505–69) is considered the father of Polish literature; other writers of this period are the great poet Jan Kochanowski; the humanitarian Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–72); Piotr Skarga (1536–1612), a spokesman for the Counter Reformation; the historian Martin Bielski; and the political writer Stanislaus Orzechowski (1513–66).
		Modern Polish journalism was born, and light drama flourished under the playwrights Wojciech Bogus
		much Polish literature was written by émigrés in Paris and other European centers; these included the poet Cyprjan Norwid (1821–83).
	www.bartleby.com /65/po/Polishli.html (708 words)

	Primary Source Readings (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		We know full well that the labourer on the estates of the [Polish] nobility became a possession of the manor-house and by an incomprehensible violation of humanity ceased to be an individual, contrary to the obvious law of nature.
		For the Polish Nation did not die: its body lieth in the grave, but its spirit hath descended from the earth, that is from public life, to the abyss, that is to the private life of people who suffer slavery....
		It is on [these principles] that we base the future regeneration of Polish society; it is in their spirit that we work for the achievement of its independent existence....
	www.people.memphis.edu /~dunowsky/Czaykowski.html (5121 words)

	The Eternal Man (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-09)
		Dr Wac³aw Walecki is a Research Fellow in the Institute of Polish Studies at the Jagiellonian University of Cracow.
		Jan Kochanowski in the Literature and Culture of the Polish Enlightenment,
		Traditions of the Early Polish Period in the Enlightenment of the Reign of Stanis³aw August Poniatowski,
	www.filg.uj.edu.pl /~wwalecki/html/eng/publ_10.html (165 words)

	glbtq >> social sciences >> Poland
		The Polish state is traditionally dated from 966; Warsaw has been the capital since 1611.
		Despite the significant accomplishments of the Polish Enlightenment, including Europe's first written constitution, the country suffered three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795) that divided the Commonwealth among Austria, Prussia, and Russia, erasing the Polish state from Europe's map.
		During the eighteenth century, Poland was affected by the fluid attitude toward sexuality that was favored by the Enlightenment's tolerance and secularism.
	www.glbtq.com /social-sciences/poland.html (806 words)

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