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	Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Alexander III - Wikisource
		Alexander retreated towards the Norman south and was consecrated and crowned, 20 September, at the little Volscian town of Nympha.
		Pope Alexander refused to submit his clear right to this iniquitous tribunal, which, as was foreseen, declared for the usurper (11 February, 1160).
		In the estimation of Rome, Italy, and Christendom, Alexander III's epitaph expresses the truth, when it calls him "the Light of the Clergy, the Ornament of the Church, the Father of his City and of the World." He was friendly to the new academical movement that led to the establishment of the great medieval universities.
	en.wikisource.org /wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pope_Alexander_III (857 words)

	pope innocent iii (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Pope Innocent III made use of the weakness of Frederick II (who was four) to reassert papal power in Sicily, and acknowledged Frederick II as king only after the surrender of the privileges of the Four Chapters, which William I of Sicily had previously extorted from Pope Adrian IV.
		Pope Innocent III called for the Fourth Crusade in 1198, directing the call towards the knights and nobles of Europe, rather than the kings (he preferred that neither Richard I of England and Philip II of France, who were still engaged in war, nor his German enemies, participate).
		Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians in return, and although he was not pleased with the means by which it was done, he accepted the end result of the temporary reunification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches after the Great Schism of 1054.
	www.crusades-history.com /Pope-Innocent-III.aspx (1062 words)

	Pope Alexander III
		He was the trusted adviser of Adrian IV and was regarded as the soul of the party of independence among the cardinals, which sought to escape the German yoke by alliance with the Normans of Naples.
		Pope Alexander refused to submit his clear right to this iniquitous tribunal, which, as was foreseen, declared for the usurper (11 February, 1160).
		In the estimation of Rome, Italy, and Christendom, Alexander III's epitaph expresses the truth, when it calls him "the Light of the Clergy, the Ornament of the Church, the Father of his City and of the World." He was friendly to the new academical movement that led to the establishment of the great medieval universities.
	www.catholicity.com /encyclopedia/a/alexander_iii,pope.html (831 words)

	CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope Innocent III
		Segni and nephew of Clement III, born 1160 or 1161 at Anagni, and died 16 June, 1216, at Perugia.
		Lucius III, Urban III, Gregory VIII, and Clement III.
		The same legate was instructed by the pope to threaten Philip Augustus with interdict over the whole of France if within a month he would not be reconciled with his lawful wife, Ingeburga of Denmark, whom he had rejected and in whose stead he had taken Agnes, daughter of the Duke of Meran.
	www.newadvent.org /cathen/08013a.htm (4174 words)

	Pope Alexander: Free Encyclopedia Articles at Questia.com Online Library
		Pope was born in London of Roman Catholic parents and moved to Binfield in 1700.
		Alexander Pope THE POETRY OF ALLUSION Oxford...DACCA KUALA LUMPUR HONG KONG TOKYO Alexander Pope THE POETRY OF ALLUSION BY...judgment.
		Alexander was forced (1162) by...with the emperor, the pope was aided by the Lombard...
	www.questia.com /library/encyclopedia/101265457 (1873 words)

	Kids.Net.Au - Encyclopedia > Pope Alexander III
		(Orlando Bandinelli), pope from 1159 to 1181, was a Siennese, and as a teacher of canon law in Bologna composed the Stroma or the Summa Magistri Rolandi, one of the earliest commentaries on the Decretum Gratiani.
		On the 7th of September 1159 he was chosen the successor of Pope Adrian IV, a minority of the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV.
		This antipope, and his successors Paschal III (1164-1168) and Calixtus III (1168-1178), had the imperial support; but after the defeat of Legnano, Barbarossa finally (in the peace of Venice, 1177) recognized Alexander as pope.
	www.kids.net.au /encyclopedia-wiki/po/Pope_Alexander_III (377 words)

	Alexander III, pope. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
		In the long struggle with the emperor, the pope was aided by the Lombard League, which named the town of Alessandria for him.
		Alexander had already (1174) received the penance of Henry II of England for the murder of St. Thomas Becket, whom Alexander had canonized in 1173.
		One of the great medieval popes, he issued many decretals, established the procedure for canonizing saints, inaugurated the two-thirds rule for papal elections, protected the universities, and was one of the most distinguished champions of ecclesiastical independence in the Middle Ages.
	www.bartleby.com /65/al/Alexand3.html (276 words)

	Frederick I Barbarossa (c. 1123-1190)
		Frederick was the son of Frederick II, duke of Swabia, and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, duke of Bavaria, of the rival dynasty of the Welfs.
		Alexander III, one of the greatest lawyers of the church, wanted to found a papacy that would be independent of the Emperor; he excommunicated Frederick in 1160.
		Pope Alexander III was able to force the kings of Europe (especially Louis VII of France) not to enter into a political agreement with Barbarossa.
	www.thelatinlibrary.com /imperialism/notes/frederickbarbarossa.html (2583 words)

	Biography – Pope Alexander III – The Papal Library
		As soon as Alexander was raised to the chair of Saint Peter, seeing the threatened schism, he addressed an encyclical letter to bishops of the principal churches, to inform them of his election.
		Alexander remained at Ninfa to avoid the disturbances which were excited in Rome by the partisans of Octavian.
		Cardinal Julius was Alexander's vicar at Rome, and these Romans, who always ill-treated the pontiffs when they resided in the city, and bitterly regretted them when they left it, now grown wiser, sent an ambassador to the pope to entreat him to return to Rome.
	www.saint-mike.org /Papal-Library/AlexanderIII/biography.html (2339 words)

	The Dispatch - Serving the Lexington, NC - News (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		On September 7, 1159 he was chosen the successor of Pope Adrian IV (1154–59), a minority of the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal-priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV (1159–64).
		On the 12 March 1178 Alexander III returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice: firstly from 1162, when he was sent into a Campanian exile by Oddone Frangipane following his brief arrest and detainment, until the 23 November 1165; and again in 1167.
		In 1181 Alexander III excommunicated William I of Scotland (1165–1214) and put the kingdom under the interdict.
	www.the-dispatch.com /apps/pbcs.dll/section?category=NEWS&template=wiki&text=Pope_Alexander_III (489 words)

	CNN - Biography - Pope John Paul II - Smoke over the Vatican: Picking the pope
		But in 1059 Pope Nicholas II decreed that henceforth all papal electors must be cardinals, and in 1179 Pope Alexander III ruled that all cardinals would have an equal vote in the election.
		In 1274, Pope Gregory X decided that the cardinals must meet within 10 days of a pope's death, and that they should be kept in strict seclusion until a pope was chosen.
		Many popes have been formally installed with a coronation, but Pope John Paul II refused a coronation and was installed as the pope during a Mass in St. Peter's Square.
	www.cnn.com /SPECIALS/1999/pope/selection (659 words)

	Alexander III (Pope) - MSN Encarta
		Alexander III (Pope) (1105?-1181), pope (1159-1181), who vigorously championed papal authority in the church.
		After a long struggle with three successive antipopes who were supported by Frederick I, Alexander, aided by the Lombard League, forced Frederick to recognize his elevation to the papacy.
		Forced by Frederick I into exile in 1162, Alexander III spent much of his pontificate in France.
	encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761551908/Alexander_III_(Pope).html (178 words)

	Ask Father Joe . The Pope \| BustedHalo.com
		Popes also direct the life of the church through the appointment of bishops throughout the world, the appointments of the leaders and members of the Roman curia (the central administrative offices of the church), and the setting and implementation of church ("canon") law.
		Since the pope is elected by those members of the college of cardinals under the age of 80, the presumption has been that the new pope will be among their number.
		Pope John XXIII required all cardinals to be ordained as bishops in preparation for the Second Vatican Council.
	www.bustedhalo.com /ask_father_joe/pope.htm (2340 words)

	Patron Saints Index: Pope Alexander III
		Adviser and papal chancellor to Pope Adrian IV.
		Alexander’s papal election led some cardinals to elect an anti-pope, Victor IV who was supported by Germany and some Lombards.
		In 1162, Alexander was forced into exile in France by Emperor Frederick I. In his long struggle with the emperor, the pope was aided by the Lombard League, which named the town of Alessandria for him.
	www.catholic-forum.com /saints/pope0170.htm (154 words)

	Rejection of Pascal's Wager: Popes Throughout History
		The next two popes were merely stop-gap instruments of Marozia- to warm the papal throne until her son could ascend to it.
		Pope Alexander III (in office 1159-1181) had the dubious distinction of being one of the first popes to order the use of force against heresies.
		Alexander, born Rodrigo Borgia, was appointed to the lucrative post as vice-chancellor of the papal curia by his uncle, Pope Callistus III in 1457.
	www.geocities.com /paulntobin/papacy.html (7813 words)

	Circle of Prayer - The Church in Crisis - A History of the General Councils 325 to 1870 - Chapter 11
		Pope Alexander III, who summoned the eleventh General Council, is an instance in point, for in the history of the Church, by his effect, he stands out as one of the six or seven greatest popes of all, one whose laws and creative institutional work still influence the life of the Church.
		And then, as pope, sitting in judgment on appeals of every kind that poured in from every part of Europe, he was so to decide the cases that, in judging them, he developed law, created law.
		A passage in Alexander's letter convoking the council has been taken as a hint to the bishops that their presence was chiefly required in order to give the decrees a more rapidly effective publicity.
	www.circleofprayer.com /church-crisis12.html (3679 words)

	Holy Father Benedict 16 » The Pope (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Pope Urban VI, elected 1378, was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election.
		Pope John Paul II abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot.
		The primacy is therefore regarded primarily as a consequence of the Pope’s position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon.
	holyfatherbenedict16.com /the-pope (5502 words)

	Wikinfo \| Pope Alexander III
		August 30, 1181), was pope from 1159 to 1181.
		He was born in Siena, and first made his mark as teacher of canon law at the University of Bologna, where he composed the Stroma or the Summa Magistri Rolandi, one of the earliest commentaries on the Decretum Gratiani.
		On the September 7, 1159 he was chosen the successor of Pope Adrian IV, a minority of the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV.
	www.wikinfo.org /wiki.php?title=Pope_Alexander_III (491 words)

	CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope Alexander III
		Pope placed his foot on the neck of the prostrate Emperor has done valiant service to Protestant tradition since the days of Luther.
		Alexander's enforced exile (1162-65) in France contributed greatly to enhance the dignity of the papacy, never so popular as when in distress.
		Pope equalled him in firmness and excelled him in the arts of diplomacy.
	www.newadvent.org /cathen/01287a.htm (929 words)

	Simonswald History
		In October 1150 Pope Eugene III appointed him cardinal deacon of Cosmae and Damiani; later he became cardinal priest of St Mark's Church.
		One year later, in 1179 Alexander held the Third Council of the Lateran, an assemblage, regarded by Catholic Church as the Eleventh Ecumenical Council; its acts embodied several of the pope's suggestions such as requiring that no-one may be elected pope without the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals, a rule, still in place.
		Alexander died at Civita Castellana on the 3rd of August 1181 two years after putting Simonswald on the map and signing responsible for its name.
	www.simonswald.com /history (1276 words)

	From Pope Alexander VI to Pope John XXIII, the history of the papacy is a succession of scoundrels and saints
		From Pope Alexander VI to Pope John XXIII, the history of the papacy is a succession of scoundrels and saints
		Alexander VI was born Rodrigo de Borja y Borja in 1431 and made a cardinal at age 25 by his uncle, Pope Callistus III, who reigned in 1455-58.
		Pope Leo the Great (440-461) was the first pope to claim to be the successor to Peter the Apostle and to extend the authority of the bishop of Rome to the larger church.
	www.sfgate.com /cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/04/20/MNGEFCBSSU1.DTL (1027 words)

	Pope Alexander III
		Alexander III, given name Orlando Bandinelli, Roman Catholic Pope from 1159 to 1181, was a Siennese, and as a teacher of canon law in Bologna composed the Stroma or Summa Magistri Rolandi, one of the earliest commentaries on the Decretum Gratiani.
		This antipope, and his successors Paschal III (1164-68) and Calixtus III (1168-78), had the imperial support; but after the defeat of Legnano, Barbarossa finally (in the peace of Venice, 1177) recognized Alexander as pope.
		Besides checkmating Barbarossa, he had humbled King Henry II of England in the affair of Thomas Becket, he had confirmed the right of Alphonso I of Portugal to the crown, and even as a fugitive had enjoyed the favor and protection of Louis VII of France.
	www.nndb.com /people/261/000094976 (353 words)

	ABRIDGED HISTORY OF ROME
		Pope Eugenius IV and the Council of Florence
		Pope Clement VII and the Sack of Rome
		Pope Paul III and the Defence of Rome
	www.romeartlover.it /Umbereco.html (314 words)

	Peter Abelard: on Aliquid by Roland, Pope Alexander III (12th century A.D.); translator: Dr Carolinne White
		Peter Abelard: on Aliquid by Roland, Pope Alexander III (12th century A.D.); translator: Dr Carolinne White
		The rise and fall of the Church of Rome
		You are here: on aliquid, by Roland, pope Alexander III and probable student of Pierre Abelard <
	www.abelard.org /abelard/roland.htm (2191 words)

	Inquisition
		Pope Alexander should have known that this absolute power would be horribly abused.
		The succeeding Popes, Lucius III, Innocent III and Gregory IX, adopted Alexander’s brainchild and nurtured it until it became the monstrous papal tribunal called “The Inquisition”.
		Now far away in Africa, I faced the fact that Pope Alexander VI was not a true representative of Jesus but a grotesque distortion of the poor and chaste Christ.
	home.att.net /~rayfontaine/page_9.htm (851 words)

	The Ecole Glossary (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		1105, Alexander III was the first great lawyer pope.
		The pope and the emperor continued to vie for power and for the states of Italy until the Peace of Rialto in 1177.
		Alexander was the first pope to express concern about the Albigenses and was an influence on Peter Abelard.
	www2.evansville.edu /ecoleweb/glossary/alexanderiii.html (197 words)

	Under Pope Alexander
		For when Pope Hadrian IV had died in 1159, the cardinals elected two popes together, namely Roland of Siena, who took the name of Alexander III, and Octavian of Rome who though he was nominated by fewer cardinals, nevertheless with the support of the emperor Frederick usurped the name of Pope Victor IV.
		In addition, Alexander III and the fathers, renewing the precedent of Lateran I and II, laid down several canons for the reform of the church and some concerning morals and civil affairs.
		Following the footsteps of our predecessors of happy memory, popes Innocent and Eugenius, we forbid those abominable jousts and fairs, which are commonly called tournaments, in which knights come together by agreement and rashly engage in showing off their physical prowess and daring, and which often result in human deaths and danger to souls.
	www.ewtn.com /library/COUNCILS/LATERAN3.HTM (4802 words)

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