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Topic: Prototype (linguistics

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	Linguistics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Linguistics compares languages (comparative linguistics) and explores their histories, in order to find universal properties of language and to account for its development and origins (historical linguistics).
		Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology are social sciences that consider the interactions between linguistics and society as a whole.
		Linguists working in Optimality Theory state generalizations in terms of violable rules, which is a greater departure from mainstream linguistics, and linguists working in various kinds of functional grammar and Cognitive Linguistics tend to stress the non-autonomy of linguistic knowledge and the non-universality of linguistic structures, thus departing importantly from the Chomskian paradigm.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Linguistics (3294 words)

	Linguistics - WebArticles.com
		Given these dichotomies, scholars who call themselves simply linguists or theoretical linguists, with no further qualification, tend to be concerned with independent, theoretical synchronic linguistics, which is acknowledged as the core of the discipline.
		Whereas theoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities both within particular languages and among all languages, applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and applies them to other areas.
		Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are extremely fruitful areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront in recent years with increasing computing power.
	www.webarticles.com /print.php?id=450 (1569 words)

	Ferdinand de Saussure [28 October 1910] Course in General Linguistics Introductory chapter: Brief survey of the history ...
		The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) is widely considered to be the founder of modern linguistics in its attempts to describe the structure of language rather than the history of particular languages and language forms.
		Linguistics will have to recognise laws operating universally in language, and in a strictly rational manner, separating general phenomena from those restricted to one branch of languages or another.
		As long as the activity of linguists was limited to comparing one language with another, this general utility cannot have been apparent to most of the general public, and indeed the study was so specialised that there was no real reason to suppose it of possible inteest to a wider audience.
	evans-experientialism.freewebspace.com /saussure.htm (6774 words)

	"On the origin of Creoles" (Michel DeGraff, Linguistic Typology 2001)
		Likewise, for the linguist, the speech of peoples considered primitive has primacy over the speech of civilized peoples: the former is closer to the sort of grammatical instincts of which children's utterances reveal processes that are simple, logical and fast.
		In such genealogical-cum-teleological approaches to the linguistic systema naturae, time is built-in as a pre-requisite for the development of complexity in both biological and linguistic evolution: complexity qua "higher organization" takes "very long time spans" to evolve (see (1c)).
		Historically, linguistic interaction in colonial Haiti between Europeans and Africans was by far the most intense at the onset of contact, with French structures having had the most influence in the formation of (proto-)HC quite early on, in late 17th through early 18th-century.
	web.mit.edu /linguistics/www/degraff/darwin/anti-simplest.html (15746 words)

	Linguistics <- Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research <- U of R
		Applicants should send a transcript showing a linguistics degree or showing the courses in linguistics which they have taken, along with a statement of areas of linguistics in which they would like to do graduate research for their M.A. thesis.
		Participating faculty members can then assess whether more linguistics courses are needed in a qualifying year and which ones, or whether the student is eligible for admission as a fully qualified graduate student.
		Participating faculty are housed in various departments of the university and its federated colleges, the only full-time linguistics personnel being in the department of Indian Languages, Literature and Linguistics in the First Nations University of Canada on the university campus.
	www.uregina.ca /gradstudies/calendar/programs/linguistics.shtml (625 words)

	What is a prototype?
		The prototype of any category is the member or set of members of a category that best represents the category as a whole.
		Prototypical nouns embody extremely and obviously time-stable concepts.
		However, the concept ‘fist’ does not fit the prototype of a noun, because a ‘fist’ does not characteristically persist over a long period of time.
	www.sil.org /linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPrototype.htm (162 words)

	Saussure's Lectures on General Linguistics (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Hence, it comes about that the literary point of view is more or less confused with the linguistic point of view, and furthermore, more concretely, the written word is confused with the spoken word; two superimposed systems of signs which have nothing to do with each other, the written and the spoken, are conflated.
		As long as the activity of linguists was limited to comparing one language with another, this general utility cannot have been apparent to most of the general public, and indeed the study was so specialised that there was no real reason to suppose it of possible interest to a wider audience.
		Languages constitute the concrete object that the linguist encounters on the earth's surface; 'the language' is the heading one can provide for whatever generalisations the linguist may be able to extract from all his observations across time and space.
	www.marxists.org /reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm (6671 words)

	Prototype Theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Prototype theory also plays a central role in Linguistics, as part of the mapping from phonological structure to semantics.
		The term prototype has been defined in Eleanor Rosch's study "Natural Categories" (1973) and was first defined as a stimulus, which takes a salient position in the formation of a category as it is the first stimulus to be associated with that category.
		The notion of prototypes is related to the (later) Wittgenstein's discomfort with the traditional notion of category.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Prototype_(linguistics) (1709 words)

	John Taylor, Linguistics Programme, University of Otago, New Zealand
		Currently he is the managing editor of Cogntive Linguistics Research (Mouton de Gruyter) and is on the editorial board of the Functions of Language (John Benjamins), and of the journal Cognitive Linguistics.His recent publications include:
		'Prototypes in cognitive linguistics.' To appear in Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, ed.
		The role of constitutive qualia in the interpretation and acceptability of middle expressions in English.' English Language and Linguistics 8.2 (2004): 293-321.
	www.otago.ac.nz /linguistics/staff/taylor.html (1047 words)

	Applying Cognitive Classification Principles to the Study of Prepositions (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		This proposal of using a hierarchical model which illustrates the mental processing abilities of the language user as a result of his or her linguistic knowledge (syntactic or semantic) is supported by Langacker (1991:2) who says that "the linguistic system subsumes units representing the same phenomenon at varying levels of detail and resolution.
		This is because any of the members can qualify as the prototype member at the top of the superordinate structure, by virtue of the common metaphorical concept that this prototype member expresses and functions only as a generator.
		In all cases, the prototype member functions as a generator in which prospective subordinate members can be assessed based on the related metaphorical concepts that the generator produced.
	www.shakespeare.uk.net /journal/2_2/tan2.html (2598 words)

	LINGUIST List 15.1751: Linguistic Theories: Taylor (2004)
		An important role in such activation processes is played by the knowledge on the part of the speaker of certain domains, frames and scripts; this thesis is illustrated by some examples of compound nouns such as "alligator shoes" vs. "horse shoes".
		102-123) deals with an extension of the prototype model discussed thus far, in that it opposes "monocentric" and "polycentric categories", a distinction analogous to that between monosemy and polysemy (a further point discussed by Taylor is the distinction between polysemy and homonymy; pp.
		Leaving aside the change from "linguistic behaviour" to " linguistic semantics", this statement seems to entail, however, a certain danger of circularity, which concerns not only the ideas put forward in LC, but Cognitive Linguistics in general.
	www.linguistlist.org /issues/15/15-1751.html (2235 words)

	John Rethorst - Art and Imagination: Implications of Cognitive Science for Moral Education
		Prototype theory holds that we recognize objects around us by comparing them to mental constructions derived from experience.
		So is classical moral law theory problematic in showing that the moral choice in a given situation or context is a specific application of a general principle, since there are few real-life situations that neatly fit general laws.
		Although study of imagination and metaphor in philosophy, linguistics, and cognitive science has barely begun, Murdoch and Johnson already have something crucial to say to education.
	www.ed.uiuc.edu /EPS/PES-yearbook/97_docs/rethorst.html (3098 words)

	Jeffery: Standard English as a prototype category
		Prototype categorisation initially grew out of Wittgenstein’s philosophical observations about family resemblances, but the principles were developed in cognitive psychology, chiefly in a series of important papers by Eleanor Rosch (Heider)
		RP serves various purposes, but the USA has its own General American prototype, and the Australians would hardly want to assess their national varieties in terms of a Pom-prototype; and likewise we might benefit from a recognised prototype for spoken South African English (though we should probably end up with several different ones).
		And the most standard, that is the prototype, is to be found in only one situation-type, namely the type defined by the tenor-parameter as formal and by the mode-parameter as written.
	www.und.ac.za /und/ling/archive/jeff-01.html (3032 words)

	Reviews
		As a cognitive linguist Taylor is able to critique the classical theory of categorization and promote the prototype theory of categorization.
		The basic level is the level at which we organize the category in terms of an exemplar or prototype while the subordinate level includes marked instantiations of items related to the prototype.
		Simply put, we construct categories around prototypes and their perceived family resemblance with more peripheral members of the category, a concept Taylor refers to as "degree of membership" [47].
	www.cercles.com /review/r23/taylor.htm (1802 words)

	Dan Brown's Greenonions.com » Prototypes Explained
		In causation, there is prototypical causation: an agent does something physical to change something in a patient.
		The individual little events that make up a prototypical cause are not as basic as the overall event itself.
		The content management categories Role, Workflow, and Content all have a prototype, and members may be central (close to the prototype) or non-central (far from the prototype to varying degrees).
	www.greenonions.com /archives/2004/12/15/prototypes-explained (428 words)

	Prototype theory (was: Decker on Olsen) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Prototype semantics enables us to investigate meaning while avoiding some of the problems that occur with other approaches to semantics.
		We know that the primary meaning of a word like KOIMAW is 'sleep.' That, we could say, is its prototypical meaning.
		But KOIMAW can have meanings which are semantically farther from that cental (prototypical) meaning point, such as the euphemistic meaning sense of 'to die' in 1 Cor.
	lists.ibiblio.org /pipermail/b-greek/2001-March/016020.html (331 words)

	Linguistics 001: Homework 1
		Below you will find two lists of titles of articles or books published in linguistics within the last few years, many of them from Language, which is the journal of the Linguistic Society of America.
		Classify the first list of titles according to the level(s) of linguistic analysis that seem to be most clearly involved.
		The online Lexicon of Linguistics may be useful, though it is rather technical, being intended for specialists.
	www.ling.upenn.edu /courses/Fall_2001/ling001/homework1.html (593 words)

	Information Alchemy: Translingual Information Management (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		To create a prototype translingual search facility which can be used as a basis for pursuing major sponsored funding.
		Computational linguistics students receive training in Machine Translation, Information Retrieval and Web programming as part of their curriculum, and some have experience with the issues in processing data that does not use ISO 8859-1 ('Latin-1') encoding.
		The ACL is the primary professional organization for Computational Linguistics; benefits of student membership include a journal subscription, conference announcements, and reduced rates on the annual conference.
	www.georgetown.edu /faculty/ballc/alchemy/proposal.html (1867 words)

	[No title]
		Kirby, J. "Applied Linguistics and the teacher: across the divide." ITL 93-94: 71-83.
		Rajagopalan, K. "Linguistics and the myth of nativity: comments on the controversy over 'new/non-native Englishes'." Journal of Pragmatics 27(2): 225-231.
		Linguistic Controversies: essays in linguistic theory and practice in honour of F R Palmer.
	calper.la.psu.edu /copora_files/appliedlinguistics.txt (2384 words)

	Research
		In the context of Spanish as a second language, I have explored specific problems such as transitivity alternations, the expression of anaphoric reference, null objects, and the dative case.
		Zyzik, E. Learners’ overgeneralization of dative clitics to accusative contexts: Evidence for prototype effects in SLA.
		“The dative prototype in L2 Spanish.” Presented at the Second UC Conference on Language Learning and Teaching.
	www.msu.edu /~zyzik/Research.htm (369 words)

	Gene B. Gragg
		Gene Gragg has been involved in both linguistics and languages of the Near East since the time when, as a graduate student in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Chicago (1962-66), he became interested in applying linguistic rigor to the study of Ancient Near Eastern languages.
		Since coming back to the University of Chicago in 1969, with a joint appointment in the Departments of Linguistics and Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, he has divided his teaching time between the two departments, with time off for a year of field work in Ethiopia.
		A continuation of this project is the publication of the Persepolis "Fortification Tablets", a large (10,000+ tablets), unpublished corpus of administrative documents in Elamite from the Achaemenid empire, excavated by the Oriental Institute in the 1930’s.
	humanities.uchicago.edu /depts/nelc/facultypages/gragg/index.html (740 words)

	Events
		“Prototype” is a central notion in typology and cognitive linguistics, two disciplines closely related to grammaticalization theory in many respects.
		The Second Conference on the Archaeology and Linguistics of Australia (ARCLING II, 2002)was at the National Museum of Australia and Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Canberra.
		Professor Harris is a specialist in the Caucasus (or Transcaucasia) in the former U.S.S.R. and in historical linguistics.
	crlc.anu.edu.au /events.html (921 words)

	Teachers College
		Franklin Horowitz is Adjunct Associate Professor of Linguistics and Education in the Department of Arts and Humanities at Teachers College, Columbia University.
		He taught classics at Rutgers University, ESL at Columbia, and linguistic courses at Teachers College since 1978.
		He specializes in semantics and historical linguistics, especially the Indo-European and Semitic languages.
	www.tc.columbia.edu /centers/waysofdoing/Horowitz.htm (185 words)

	Dan Brown's Greenonions.com » Prototype Theory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The realm of introspective people, it is the victim of frequent manhandling as we poke and prod, shake and stir to identify exacly what makes it what it is. Fully half of the thinking I’ve done on this subject has been about the moral imperative to avoid it.
		But my limited exposure to Lakoff’s linguistic analyses has given me a new set of tools with which to consider this (and other equally horse-beaten) concept.
		If the main criteria of the genre prototype is that a genre sets expectations about form, content, topic and scope, among other things, then non-central genres are those that do not do all these things.
	www.greenonions.com /archives/tags/prototype-theory (2048 words)

	LWP - The Language in the Workplace Project
		Languages National Training Organisation: conducted a study under the auspices of the UK capitalisation exercise of the Leonardo da Vinci I Programme, looking at the incorporation of languages teaching as part of business and vocational training.
		Linguistic Society of New Zealand: information on the linguistic history of New Zealand, and links to current research and academic departments.
		Applied Linguistics Association of New Zealand (ALANZ): provides access to a network of people interested and active in applied linguistic research.
	www.vuw.ac.nz /lals/research/lwp/resources/links.aspx (698 words)

	Scott DeLancey Publications--by topic
		Proceedings of the 1993 Mid-America Linguistics Conference and Conference on Siouan/Caddoan Languages, pp.
		Cross-linguistic evidence for the structure of the Agent prototype.
		Penutian in the bipartite stem belt: Disentangling areal and genetic correspondences.
	www.uoregon.edu /~delancey/pubs/pubtop.html (911 words)

	Linguist List - Book Information
		An authoritative general introduction to cognitive linguistics, this book provides up-to-date coverage of all areas of the field and sets in context recent developments within cognitive semantics (including primary metaphors, conceptual blending and Principled Polysemy), and cognitive approaches to grammar (including Radical Construction Grammar and Embodied Construction Grammar).
		While all topics are introduced in terms accessible to both undergraduate and postgraduate students, this work is sufficiently comprehensive and detailed to serve as a reference work for scholars from linguistics and neighbouring disciplines who wish to gain a better understanding of cognitive linguistics.
		The book is divided into three parts (The cognitive linguistics enterprise; Cognitive semantics; and Cognitive approaches to grammar), and is therefore suitable for a range of different course types, both in terms of length and level, as well as in terms of focus.
	linguistlist.org /pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=18294 (323 words)

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