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	Radula -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Radula is the scientific name for the toothed (A tough semitransparent horny substance; the principal component of the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of certain fungi) chitinous ribbon in the mouth of (A class of mollusks typically having a one-piece coiled shell and flattened muscular foot with a head bearing stalked eyes) gastropods.
		The radula is common to all (Invertebrate having a soft unsegmented body usually enclosed in a shell) mollusks, except the (Marine or freshwater mollusks having a soft body with platelike gills enclosed within two shells hinged together) bivalves, who feed by siphoning and filtering small particles from water.
		The ptenoglossan radula is situated between the two extremes and is typical for gastropods, adapted to a life as parasites on (A small vascular growth on the surface of a mucous membrane) polyps.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/r/ra/radula.htm (1125 words)

	Radula - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Radula is the scientific name for the toothed chitinous ribbon in the mouth of gastropods.
		The radula is common to all mollusks, except the bivalves, who feed by siphoning and filtering small particles from water.
		The ptenoglossan radula is situated between the two extremes and is typical for gastropods, adapted to a life as parasites on polyps.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Radula (975 words)

	Abalone: Introduction (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		A hard material is located under the radula and is used to press the radular teeth against the food.
		The part of the radula in the abalone that is used is often stained due to the pigments in their preferred algal food.
		The hard material used to press the radula in the abalone is called the odontophore and is a pair of cartilaginous-like structures operated by red muscle.
	www.biosbcc.net /ocean/marinesci/06future/abintro.htm (2344 words)

	The Radula (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The radula is originally a horny, toothed belt which can be protruded from the mouth and scraped back and forth against encrusting vegetation on rocks, passing the material back to the gut as on a conveyor belt.
		The radula of the Mesogastropod snails is reduced to transverse rows of a central tooth and 3 laterals on each side, poor for scraping but good for grazing on passive prey.
		In some Neogastropods, such as Murex and the Drills, the radula is used to bore holes through the shells of bivalve prey, in conjunction with a chemical softening gland on the foot or proboscis.
	www.csuchico.edu /biol/ncnhm/molluscs/pan6/page2.html (314 words)

	Scaphopods (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The dentaliid radula is a ratchet or, occasionally, a grinding organ.
		The foram is at the action plane of the radula and the damage caused by the radula is evident.
		The illustration in the center is a Scanning Electron Micrograph of the radula of an individual of this species showing the variation in the mineralization of the radula.
	www.rshimek.com /Scaph1.htm (986 words)

	Digestion
		Roughly it can be in five regions: the intake region (mouth and buccal cavity with radula and jaws), the pre-digestion region (oesophagus with salivary glands, lateral pouchs and crop), digestion region (three chambered stomach with the associated digestive gland), uptake region (intestine) and the excretion region (rectum and anus).
		When the radula knobs are moved from each other, the radula is bend and stretched, this spreading the teeth on it, which provides the grasp function.
		Note that the radula in the real apple snail is more or less covered by the radula knobs that bend and stretch the radula to get the radula teeth moving towards and away from each other in order to grasp the food.
	www.applesnail.net /content/anatomy/digestion.php (1942 words)

	A Comparison of the feeding behaviour and the functional morphology of radula structure in Nudibranchs (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The radula is the characteristic buccal structure common to all gastropods and has undergone considerable diversification in size, form, and function within the nudibranchia (Behrens, 1993).
		The sponge-feeding dorids lack a central tooth within the radula, and the radula as a whole is very broad and simple due to the replication of large numbers of plain hooks.
		The radula is present within a radula sac, it may appear in ribbon form as in the species Onchidoris bilamellata, Facelina auriculata, Dendronotu frondosus, Archidoris pseudoargus and Aeolidia papillosa, or in a plate-like form, as in the species Chromodoris annae and C.
	www.opwall.com /Nudibranchreport.htm (7415 words)

	Abalone shell size and radula comparison (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Radula-A horny band or ribbon in mollusks other than bivalves that bears minute teeth on its dorsal surface and tears up food as it draws it into its mouth.
		Using a caliper, I measured the length and width of the radula and compared it to the length and width of the shells in hopes of discovering whether or not a connection existed between the two.
		The length of the radulas in the abalones' selected for dissection was approximately half of the shell size, but that is not a concrete formula.
	www.fortbragg.k12.ca.us /AG/absize.html (472 words)

	OhioLINK ETD: Morton, Douglas
		During ingestion, the radula is closed as it retracts.
		During rejection, the radula is closed as it protracts.
		Patterns I and II are associated with ingestion and rejection, respectively, and are distinguished by the timing of radula nerve (RN) activity relative to the onset of buccal nerve 2 (BN2) activity.
	www.ohiolink.edu /etd/view.cgi?case1057178515 (399 words)

	Proprioceptive Input to Feeding Motor Programs in Aplysia -- Evans and Cropper 18 (19): 8016 -- Journal of Neuroscience
		This transducer detects movement of the radula toward the jaws, which is referred to as protraction (arrow 1), and movement of the radula toward esophageal tissue, which is referred to as retraction (arrow 2).
		Radula retraction became more vigorous, and the piece of PE tubing was pulled through the buccal mass.
		Radula mechanoafferents may, therefore, trigger bite to bite-swallow conversions, whereas centripetal activity in B51 may be more important as swallows are executed.
	www.jneurosci.org /cgi/content/full/18/19/8016 (7934 words)

	Slugophile: Nudibranchs of Costa Rica
		Flaplike outgrowths, aka parapodia, on the dorsal area are one of the most obvious characters of the animals falling into this taxon.
		There are many algae eaters among them, and they all have radula and gizzard plates.
		Radula: A beltlike structure used for feeding in many opisthobranchs.
	www.slugophile.org /slugs/page/defs.html (298 words)

	Phase-Locked Coordination Between Two Rhythmically Active Feeding Structures in the Mollusk Clione limacina. I. Motor ...
		Also indicated are the cerebro-buccal connectives (cer-buc), the bilaterally symmetrical hook nerves that innervate the ipsilateral hook sac (hn), the bilaterally symmetrical radula nerves 2 (rn2) that innervate radula muscles, the medial radula nerve 1 (rn1), the nerves that innervate the proboscis (pn), and the nerves that innervate the salivary glands (sgn).
		Rhythmic movements of hooks and radula induced by a stimulation of the cerebro-buccal connective and corresponding rhythmic activity of a radula protractor Bc-RP motor neuron, radula retractor Bc-RR motor neuron, and hook retractor Bc-HR motor neuron.
		Rhythmic movements of hooks and radula induced by a stimulation of the cerebro-buccal connective (arrow) and corresponding rhythmic activity of a radula retractor Bc-RR motor neuron, radula protractor Bc-RP motor neuron and hook protractor Bc-HP motor neuron.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/87/6/2996 (4245 words)

	APStracts 9:0102J, 2002. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The current study revealed that rhythmic activities of two feeding structures of the pteropod mollusk Clione limacina, radula and hooks, which are used to extract the prey from its shell, are highly coordinated in a phase-dependent manner.
		Thus, hooks and radula were always moving in the opposite phases, taking turns grabbing and pulling the prey tissue out of the shell.
		Hook protractor motoneurons were active in the same phase with radula retractor motoneurons, while hook retractor motoneurons burst in phase with radula protractor motoneurons.
	www.uth.tmc.edu /apstracts/2002/jn/May/102j.html (278 words)

	Operant conditioning of Aplysia feeding behavior
		During ingestion, the two radula halves are protracted out of the animal to close around food and then pull the food into the buccal cavity during retraction.
		Thus, in both ingestion and rejection, radula protraction and retraction alternate, whereas radula closure shifts its phase relative to protraction-retraction.
		If most of the large-unit activity in the radula closure nerve C occurs after the end of large-unit activity in the protraction nerve P (dashed line), BMPs are classified as ingestion-like.
	www.brembs.net /learning/aplysia/aplyreview03 (3255 words)

	Wonders of the Seas: All about Mollusks (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Many mollusks have a radula, a tongue of sorts, which is rough like sandpaper and is used to rasp away at food.
		The radula is made of a hard material called chitin, the same material of which Arthropod exoskeletons are made.
		The bivalve may either burrow through the bottom, or attach itself to the substrate with glue-like strings called "byssal threads." Some scallops do not attach themselves because they prefer to be able to swim away with a squirt of water forced from the mantle.
	www.oceanicresearch.org /mollusk.html (1505 words)

	Movie-Radula movement (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Digitized videotape of the first ~2 min of a representative block of radula movements elicited by continuous stimulation of the esophageal nerve.
		The buccal mass is seen in dorsal view with the toothed radula surface exposed.
		Four piezoelectric crystals for sonomicrometric recording of the radula movement were placed on the preparation.
	fulcrum.physbio.mssm.edu /~seaslug/RadulaMovement.html (132 words)

	The Roman Snail: Nutrition (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		During the process of eating the radula skin is moved over the odontophor.
		When at the same time the radula is pressed into the food, like an excavator it digs food particles out of the food, that the snail can swallow.
		The radula's antagonist is the jaw made of horn.
	www.weichtiere.at /Mollusks/Schnecken/land/weinberg/ernaehrung.html (316 words)

	Cephalopod Radula
		The radula of neocoleoid cephalopods consists of a maximum of nine elements.
		The terminology is shown here for the two basic types of decapodiform radulas, the heterodont radula with more than one cusp on the rhachidian tooth and, usually, the first lateral teeth and the homodont radula with a single cusp on all teeth.
		Many octopods have a peculiar type of heterodont radula in which the cusps of rhachidian tooth vary from one tooth to the next in a sequential manner.
	tolweb.org /accessory/Cephalopod_Radula?acc_id=2035 (379 words)

	Diverse Synaptic Connections Between Peptidergic Radula Mechanoafferent Neurons and Neurons in the Feeding System of ...
		The buccal and cerebral ganglia, the C-B connectives, and the radula nerve, which are normally found along the posterior surface of the odontophore, have been rotated 90° to the bottom of the preparation.
		Photomicrographs of an identified radula mechanoafferent (RM) neuron (B21) in the rostral cluster of small cardioactive peptide (SCP)-immunoreactive cells and 2 cells that connected to it in the ipsilateral buccal hemiganglion.
		to the SRT in the vicinity of the grasping surface of the radula.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/83/3/1605 (9610 words)

	Snail's Teeth, Spicules, and Other Bizarre Delights: Or Beauty is in the Eye of the Beholder
		Perhaps that was the basis for my wife's distaste—somewhere in early childhood she must have come across one of these creatures with a large chunk of spinach caught in its teeth and this was revealed when it smiled at her like a Cheshire slug.
		The radula is like a flexible parabola lined with several rows of teeth and the muscles pull it back and forth, making it a remarkably effective feeding mechanism—if you like algae.
		To extract the radula for examination, the first step is to build a miniature guillotine to remove the head.
	www.microscopy-uk.org.uk /mag/artsep01/rhsnail.html (2305 words)

	Schizopora radula (Pers.: Fr.) Hallenb. 1983
		radula is separated clearly from the similar species Sch.
		Characters of distinction are the colour of the fruit body, spore size and morphology as well as the morphology of the hyphal endings in the pores walls:
		radula bigger pores and their basidiocarps are lighter coloured.
	www.uni-tuebingen.de /uni/bbm/mycology/schizopo/radula.htm (453 words)

	Palaeos Invertebrates: Mollusca: Gastropoda: The Gastropod Radula
		In the rhipidoglossan radula, [5] there is a large central tooth, flanked on each side by five laterals and numerous closely packed marginals (the rhipidoglossan radula marks an improvement over the primitive docoglossan type with a greater number of small side-teeth [Vetigastropoda, Neritomorpha]).
		In the taenioglossan radula ([1], [3], [6], above), the central tooth is flanked on each side by one lateral and two marginal teeth (characteristic of the majority of Mesogastropoda);
		in the toxoglossan radula [8] each row has only two teeth of which only one is in use at a time.
	www.palaeos.com /Invertebrates/Molluscs/Gastropoda/radula.html (277 words)

	supplementary material for Brembs et al. 2002 (Science)
		The sequence contains the opening of the jaws, followed by the protraction of the radula (cream colored tongue-like organ) in the open state, the closure of the radula, the retraction of the radula in the closed state and the closing of the jaws.
		Occasionally, an animal (mostly yoked controls) would show a jaw opening without radula protraction or a rejection-like behavior (i.e., the radula appeared to be closed during protraction) to the first few stimulations only.
		If they met the definition of a bite (i.e., the radula was protracted), they were scored as bites irrespective of the subjective impression of the observer.
	www.brembs.net /learning/aplysia/supplement2002 (2565 words)

	APStracts 3:0083N, 1996. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		All of the neurons of this cluster, which includes the identified cells B21 and B22, send axons via the radula nerve to a layer of tissue that lies under the chitinous radula (the subradula tissue).
		Alternatively, contractions are elicited when extracellular suction electrodes are used to stimulate buccal nerve 3 or the radula nerve.
		Axon spikes (A-spikes) can be intracellularly recorded from radula mechanoafferent neurons when contractions of the subradula tissue are elicited either by stretch, or by extracellular stimulation of buccal nerve 3.
	www.uth.tmc.edu /apstracts/1996/jn/May/83n.html (302 words)

	A kinematic model of swallowing in Aplysia californica based on radula/odontophore kinematics and in vivo magnetic ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		apparatus is characterized by a rasping surface (the radula) and
		The line of shadow indicating the region of widest medio-lateral extent is indicated in the side views, and the ridge, prow and cerebral ganglion are indicated in the top views.
		(B) A 100° arc of a circle whose radius is 1.23 radula stalk widths (RSW) (shown in grey) is a good fit to the radular surface below the region where the ridge occurs and is superimposed on the mid-sagittal outline of the odontophore extracted from the MRI to estimate the extent of the ridge.
	intl-jeb.biologists.org /cgi/content/full/205/20/3177 (10764 words)

	EXN.ca \| Discovery
		They use them obviously for collecting food but this one is from a snail which bores holes in oysters and clams, anything that will sit still long enough for it to climb aboard.
		The snail dissolves and scapes until the hole is made, and the radula is pushed into the meat.
		But the radula is very long and new sharp teeth are brought into play.
	www.exn.ca /Stories/1999/02/01/54.asp (278 words)

	The Sea Slug Forum - Thorunna florens
		After many goes at trying to send you the SEM radula photos of the Thorunna cf.
		These radula pics are from the animal from Thailand, at the top of the page, which Rebecca Johnson referred to in her message.
		This radula is rather different from the specimens of Thorunna florens that I have looked at.
	www.seaslugforum.net /find.cfm?id=401 (215 words)

	The Sea Slug Forum - Phestilla panamica
		To accompany the Fact Sheet on Phestilla panamica, here are some SEM photos of the radula.
		This species has many similarities to the widespread Indo-west Pacific species Phestilla lugubris, which also feeds on species of ; the coral Porites.
		PHOTOS: SEM photos of the radula of Phestilla panamica (upper right, lower right - 17 mm long preserved) and Phestilla lugubris (lower left - 8 mm long alive).
	www.seaslugforum.net /find.cfm?id=12287 (272 words)

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