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Topic: Ray optics

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	Capillary X-ray Optics - Introduction
		However these optics are generally small in size and must be designed for a particular incident angle and energy, thus restricting their apllicability for braodband divergent radiation.
		Grazing incidence optics depend on the phenomenon of total external reflection, but are restricted in their use because of their very small angular aperture, large size, or large focal length (2).
		Recently, a new type of x-ray optic, based on an assembly of a large number of hollow capillary tubes brought together to form a "Kumakhov lens," was invented in Moscow (4).
	www.albany.edu /x-ray-optics/intro.html (454 words)

	Wikinfo \| Optics
		Optics is a branch of physics that describes the behavior of light and the interaction of light with matter.
		Rays are bent at the interface between two dissimilar media, and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index is a function of position.
		The ray in geometric optics is perpendicular to the wavefront in physical optics.
	www.wikinfo.org /wiki.php?title=optics (421 words)

	X-ray optics releases new potential in mature technology
		Although x rays are not new, the past several years has been marked by innovative development in new materials and approaches to x-ray optics, lifting x-ray exploration to new levels of importance by increasing the capabilities of a range of widely used systems from the scanning electron microscope to mammograms and clinical x rays.
		By combining many concentric cones, the optic is able to focus (or collimate depending on the source location in respect to the optic) a greater percentage of the radiation.
		Although optics that depend on total external reflectance such as polycapillaries, nested cone and multilayer mirrors are highly transmissive for the correct incident angle, attention is gaining for refractive x-ray optics for imaging applications.
	www.spie.org /web/oer/may/may99/xray.html (2063 words)

	Light: Ray Optics
		Rays are basically infinitesimally thin slices of waves in the direction that they are traveling.
		The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plan, and the angle of reflection,
		Since the light rays do not really pass through the image, images formed by a plane mirror are known as virtual images.
	library.thinkquest.org /C005705/English/Light/light3.htm (1093 words)

	X-ray Optics and Microscopy at Stony Brook
		Welcome to the x-ray optics and microscopy group at Stony Brook.
		We use coherent soft x-rays for optics experiments.
		Much of our effort is directed towards using Fresnel zone plates to produce one of the smallest focused spots of electromagnetic waves of any wavelength, and exploiting these nanofocused beams for studies of biological and environmental science specimens.
	xray1.physics.sunysb.edu (119 words)

	ESA Science & Technology: X-ray Optics for XEUS
		The optics have been prototyped to improve the TRL [Technology Readiness Level] but the large size of optics still needs to be developed further in the context of achieving an extremely large space telescope.
		Optics Developments must not only achieve the science requirements but also be feasible to manufacture in a cost effective manner.
		In this respect the integration of optics must be simple and the ability to mass produce the optics with a high reliability are important factors.
	sci.esa.int /science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=37746 (396 words)

	Replicated Grazing Incidence X-Ray Optics
		The various types of X-ray optics produced by replication with emphasis on astronomical optics are described and summarized.
		The early stages of the X-ray optics developments in the Czech Republic are closely related to the INTERKOSMOS Space Programme (Soviet and East European equivalent of ESA operated until 1989).
		All of the X-ray imaging telescopes onboard Soviet spacecrafts were equipped with the Czech X-ray optics (exception: X-ray normal incidence mirrors in the special channel of the TEREK telescopes onboard the Fobos and Koronas spacecrafts).
	altamira.asu.cas.cz /xray_repl.php (2595 words)

	OpticsForTeens : What is Optics? : Rays, Waves, and Photons
		A ray is a way of geometrically representing the path of EM Rad as it is emitted from a source and travels through a system.
		Rays are a simplified way of thinking about waves: they have direction but no phase, so one ray cannot interfere with another, and they are drawn normal to the propagating wavefront.
		The Electromagnetic Wave Optics model, which considers EM Rad to have the form of waves, was developed to explain phenomena not predicted by the Ray Optics model.
	www.opticsforteens.org /what/wio-pg2.asp (926 words)

	Paraxial optics
		In OSLO, the paraxial ray height, ray slope, and angle of incidence are described by PY, PU, and PI for the axial ray, and PYC, PUC, and PIC for the chief ray.
		The axial ray, also called a-ray or the marginal ray, is a ray from the center of the object surface through the edge of the paraxial entrance pupil.
		The chief ray, also called b-ray or the principal ray, is a ray from the edge of the object surface through the center of the entrance pupil.
	www.sinopt.com /software1/usrguide54/evaluate/paraxopt.htm (1033 words)

	Light Reflection
		The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence, or the incident angle.
		The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection, or the reflected angle.
		The reflection of light is often discussed using phrases such as "a ray of light bounces off of a mirror." This is because when a light ray reflects at the surface of a mirror it follows a path similar in behavior to a pool ball bouncing off of a cushion on a pool table.
	id.mind.net /~zona/mstm/physics/light/rayOptics/reflection/reflection1.html (354 words)

	Wide-field X-ray Optics
		An important alternative is the Lobster eye X-ray optics theoretically described in the past but not yet constructed and used in a real experiment.
		The major scientific achievements of the X-ray astronomy in the past are closely related to the use of large X-ray imaging telescopes based mostly on the Wolter 1 X-ray objectives.
		The recently confirmed X-ray counterparts of Gamma Ray Bursters (GRBs) may serve as an excellent example.For recently in detail investigated GRB with precise localization accuracy, in almost all cases variable and/or fading X-ray counterparts/afterglows have been identified.
	altamira.asu.cas.cz /xray_wide.php (2356 words)

	Bruker AXS : X-ray Optics
		X-ray optics are more and more important to meet the ever increasing needs of many demanding applications in x-ray diffraction, x-ray fluorescence analysis, and chemical or biological structure determination.
		However, there is a large variety of purposes to use x-ray optics: increase the primary beam flux or the flux density, improve the angular or energy resolution of a set up, improve the peak-to-background ratio, and many more.
		Furthermore, for special requirements optics can be designed; in a first theoretically using ray tracing methods to predict the performance.
	www.bruker-axs.de /index.php?id=x_ray_optics (205 words)

	Unisantis GmbH - X-ray Polycapillary Optics (X-ray lenses) (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Polycapillary optics control X-ray and neutron beams and are based upon the principle of multiple external reflections.
		This field of optics was conceived by Professor M.A. Kumakhov in the early 1980's.
		Invention of capillary optics for X-ray and Neutron collimation.
	www.unisantis.com /kumakhov-optics.html (448 words)

	oe magazine - X-Ray Vision (Site not responding. Last check: )
		The hard-x-ray region, where such optics are yet to be routinely used, remains relatively unexplored at high sensitivity and fine angular resolution, however.
		To ensure high-quality optics, we have therefore made developments in material strength, adhesion and release, and plating-bath stress control.
		In 2001, he was selected as an SPIE Fellow for his significant scientific and technical contributions to the Society and the optics community, followed by the Rossi Prize of the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the American Astronomical Society in 2004, which he shared with H. Tananbaum.
	oemagazine.com /fromthemagazine/jun04/xray.html (1782 words)

	Independent supplier of x-ray optics and x-ray optical components - Xenocs
		Xenocs is the leading independent supplier of X-ray optics and X-ray optical components.
		Using proprietary manufacturing technologies based on precision free-form optical surfaces including aspheric substrates, sub-nanometer precision multilayer coating technology and innovative single reflection optical concepts, Xenocs manufactures a wide range of X-ray optical components.
		Xenocs is committed to providing customer satisfaction through expertise and high performance reliable solutions, enabling our customers to achieve a rapid return on investment.
	www.xenocs.com (223 words)

	ESA Science & Technology: X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Optics
		The existing technologies of focussing optics use polished glass, electroformed nickel or foils and would lead to excessively heavy and expensive optics, and/or they are not able to produce the required large area.
		In a pore optic one wall of each pore is used as the reflecting surface, and the side walls provide extreme stiffness to the structure.
		The complete system, however, still focuses the rays, since the reflection surfaces are concentric and the inclination of the surfaces rise with the radius.
	sci.esa.int /science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=38300&fbodylongid=1848 (535 words)

	X-ray concentrator will expand window on high-energy universe
		Now the x-ray optics produce much brighter beams on the tiny organic samples, greatly decreasing the time needed to collect enough data to obtain a complete structure.
		Capillary optics start out as bundles of glass tubes that are heated and drawn until the bundles are just 300 to 600 microns wide and contain hundreds to thousands of channels 3 to 50 microns wide.
		The technology of capillary optics is relatively new, having been conceived in the Former USSR in the 1980s.
	science.nasa.gov /newhome/headlines/ast14jan99_1.htm (1784 words)

	CEMF: Rays
		[3] equation for the ray vector -- viz.
		In this context the variation principle is called the Fermat principle which states that a ray always chooses a trajectory that minimizes [6] the optical path length -- viz.
		The analogy between ray optics and particle mechanics is most striking when the equations of ray optics are expressed in Hamiltonian form.
	people.deas.harvard.edu /~jones/ap216/lectures/ls_1/ls1_u2/ls1_unit_2.html (1141 words)

	OpticsForTeens : What is Optics? : Geometrical Optics : Introduction
		Geometrical optics, or ray optics, is frequently used to study how images form in optical systems.
		Optics is an approximation of how EM Rad behaves in an optical system – it is a very good model to use when the smallest dimension of the optical system is much larger than the wavelength of the incident EM Rad.
		In geometrical optics, an object is viewed as a collection of many pin-point sources of EM Rad.
	www.opticsforteens.org /what/geo-pg1.asp (206 words)

	X-Ray Optics Home Page
		X-ray optics is concerned with the interaction of photons with matter.
		QED is the primary explanation of the interaction of light and charge, and is fundamental to much of the physics which we assume and rely on in the world today.
		(X-ray) optics and atomic physics are highly accessible to simultaneous theoretical and experimental investigations.
	optics.ph.unimelb.edu.au /xrayopt/xrayopt.html (211 words)

	LBL Center for X-Ray Optics Researches X-Ray Lithography
		Housed in the Advanced Materials Laboratory, adjacent to LBL's Advanced Light Source, is the Center for X-ray Optics (CXRO), the world's first research center devoted exclusively to the study and utilization of x-ray light.
		"This is because imaging optics demagnify or reduce the mask pattern when they project it onto the surface of a semiconductor substrate." In proximity printing, the mask features and the printed patterns are the same size.
		On the LIGA proposal, Jackson and his LBL colleagues are working in close collaboration with Richard Muller, Dick White, and Roger Howe, researchers with the University of California at Berkeley, who are considered pioneers in the field.
	www.lbl.gov /Science-Articles/Archive/x-ray-lithography.html (998 words)

	IPAC @ LLNL - Technology Profile: Medical X-Ray Optics
		The high resolution results from the use of grazing incidence optics to image radiopharmaceuticals administered to a subject.
		The use of these x-ray optics essentially magnifies the image to provide improved images.
		Imaging systems employing x-ray optics, on the other hand, do not suffer from these limitations and could conceivably achieve resolution down to 10 micrometers.
	www.llnl.gov /ipandc/technology/profile/announcement/MedicalXrayOptics.php (386 words)

	MEMS open the way to ultra-lightweight and low-cost x-ray optics
		MEMS x-ray optics consist of silicon wafer mirror chips arranged on a pair of optic mounts.
		MEMS x-ray optics have important advantages: mass fabrication of x-ray mirrors at very low cost, and an extremely light weight thanks to producible fine holes (several μm) and thin wafers (several hundreds of μm).
		Figure 2 shows the fabricated mirror chip and the optic mount, the high geometrical accuracy of which allows for a small misalignment angle (on the order of arcminutes).
	newsroom.spie.org /x4559.xml (876 words)

	NASA/Marshall X-Ray Astronomy
		As the angle at which X rays scatter drops with increasing energy, the sides of the mirror have to become ever shallower to maintain reflectivity.
		A second approach, adopted here, is to accept the shallow 'graze' angle of conventional optics and to nest many mirrors to build up collecting area.
		We have completed the first engineering/test flight in Spring 2001 of a refurbished gondola carrying two mirror modules containing 3-m-focal-length X-ray optics, with 30 arcsec resolution, built specifically to demonstrate the mirror technology and to check out the aspect system in a realistic manner.
	wwwastro.msfc.nasa.gov /research/hero/what_is_HERO.html (431 words)

	XOS » X-Ray Optics
		XOS specializes in the development and manufacture of X-ray and neutron optics for enhancement of applications including material composition and thin film analysis; and material stress, strain, structure, phase, and texture.
		XOS is the leading global manufacturer of Capillary Optics and Doubly Curved Crystal Optics which enhance the performance of X-ray and neutron analytical instrumentation, including X-ray fluorescence, X-ray and neutron diffraction, and electron beam systems.
		XOS optics are among the most precise products manufactured anywhere in the world.
	www.xos.com /index.php/?page_id=4&m=1&sm=1 (174 words)

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