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Topic: Refraction (metallurgy)

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	Refraction - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed.
		Refraction of light is the most commonly seen example, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium into another.
		Refraction is also responsible for rainbows and for the splitting of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass prism.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Refraction (816 words)

	refraction - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about refraction (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Refraction is the bending of a light beam when it passes from one transparent medium to another.
		The amount of refraction depends on the densities of the media, the angle at which the wave strikes the surface of the second medium, and the amount of bending and change of velocity corresponding to the wave's frequency (dispersion).
		Refraction occurs with all types of progressive waves – electromagnetic waves, sound waves, and water waves – and differs from reflection, which involves no change in velocity.
	encyclopedia.farlex.com /refraction (897 words)

	Refraction - Biocrawler (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Refraction in geometric optics is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in velocity.
		Refraction is also responsible for rainbows and for splitting up of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass prism.
		Glass has a higher refractive index than air and the different frequencies of light travel at different speeds (dispersion), causing them to be refracted at different angles.
	www.biocrawler.com /encyclopedia/Refract (509 words)

	Mineral (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		The degree of slowing, referred to as the index of refraction, may be expressed as the ratio of the speed of light in air to the speed in a given mineral.
		For example, light travels at 299 330 km per second (km/s) in air (refractive index 1) but slows down to 123 916 km/s in diamond (ie, light travels 2.41 times as fast in air); hence the refractive index of diamond is 2.41.
		To determine the refractive index, mineralogists use the petrographic (polarizing) microscope; gemologists, the refractometer.
	www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com /index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC824400 (231 words)

	refraction (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Related phrases: index of refraction double refraction indice de refraction angle of refraction seismic refraction wave refraction atmospheric refraction refraction index complex index of refraction refraction des ondes
		Determination of the refractive power of the eye or of the nature and extent to which rays of light are bent, measured in diopter (dptr.).
		Refraction is a change of direction of a ray of light.
	dict.vocamania.com /refraction.aspx (1167 words)

	refraction: Definition and Much More from Answers.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Refraction explains the apparent bending of a pencil when it is partly immersed in water and viewed from above the surface.
		For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, refraction cannot take place and the incident ray is instead reflected back into the original medium according to the law of reflection (angle of reflection equals angle of incidence).
		A prism uses refraction to form a spectrum of colors from an incident beam of light.
	proxies.gr /nph-proxy.cgi/010110A/http/www.answers.com/topic/refraction (2080 words)

	Thick, impact resistant antireflection coatings for IR transparent optical elements - Patent 4907846
		At this designed for wavelength, therefore, the index of refraction of the first layer may be significantly different than the index of refraction of the base without any significant impact on the optical properties of the optical element at least at the designed for wavelength.
		The amplitude of the ripple is related to the degree of mismatch between the index of refraction of the optical element and the index of refraction of the protective coating layer 14.
		For a material having an index of refraction matched to the index of refraction of the material the substrate over the optical wavelength range of interest, the ripple would vanish and it would thus be equivalent to the half wavelength cerium oxide layer thickness, as shown.
	www.freepatentsonline.com /4907846.html (4909 words)

	Refraction index - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about Refraction index (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Measure of the refraction of a ray of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another.
		If the angle of incidence is i and the angle of refraction is r, the ratio of the two refractive indices is given by n
		This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.
	encyclopedia.farlex.com /Refraction+index (143 words)

	[No title]
		] The square root of the ratio of the spacing between orthogonals in deep water and in shallow water; it is a measure of the effect of refraction in diminishing wave height by increasing the length of the wave crest.
		Some quantitative measure of refraction, usually a measure of the index of refraction.
		] An instrument used to measure the index of refraction of a substance in any one of several ways, such as measurement of the refraction produced by a prism, measurement of the critical angle, observation of an interference pattern produced by passing light through the substance, and measurement of the substance's dielectric constant.
	www.accessscience.com /Dictionary/R/R14/DictR14.html (1866 words)

	contact lenses after refractive surgery, refractive, refractive index, contact, contact print, electrical contact, ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		The time it takes us, a rather conservative lenses estimate, is fifty refractive hours to journal get any etext selected, after entered, proofread, of edited, copyright searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Electrical journal this ed audienc.
		we refractive are now trying to release all our books one year contact in advance of contact the official release dates, of leaving 2006 time refractive for of better editing.
		Tags: refractive, refractive index, contact, contact print, electrical contact, wearing contact lenses after cataract surgery, journal of cataract & refractive surgery, journal of cataract & refractive surgery february 2006, journal of cataract & refractive surgery medline february 2006, journal of cataract and refractive surgery;294 3101 3107,
	www.doubledragontwo.info /contact-lense/contact-lenses-after-refractive-surgery.php (834 words)

	Refraction (metallurgy) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In metallurgy, refraction is a property of metals that indicates their ability to withstand heat.
		Metals with a high degree of refraction are referred to as refractory.
		These metals derive their high melting points from their strong intermolecular forces.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Refraction_(metallurgy) (152 words)

	Cryolite,Sodium Aluminum Fluoride,Cryolite Aluminum,Cryolite Applications
		The commercial application of cryolite is confined mainly to aluminium metallurgy, where it is used as an electrolyte in the reduction of alumina to aluminium metal by the Hall process.
		the refractive index is about 1.339 so close to water that this mineral becomes invisible when immersed in water.
		The commercial application of cryolite is confined mainly to aluminium metallurgy, where it is used as an electrolyte in the reduction of alumina to aluminuum metal by the Hall process.
	www.mineralszone.com /minerals/cryolite.html (926 words)

	refractive-surgery-and-dry-eyes, refractive,refractive index,eyes,eyes-only,lay eyes on,eyelid surgery for dry ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		refractive-surgery-and-dry-eyes, refractive,refractive index,eyes,eyes-only,lay eyes on,eyelid surgery for dry eyes,journal of cataract & refractive surgery,journal of cataract & refractive surgery february 2006,journal of cataract and refractive surgery;294 3101 3107,journal of cataract & refractive surgery medline february 2006,
		Photograph of refraction of waves in a ripple tank Refraction can be seen when looking into a bowl of water.
		Diagram of refraction of water waves The diagram on the right shows an example of refraction in water waves.
	www.prowrestlingshawn.info /refractive-surgery/refractive-surgery-and-dry-eyes.php (1089 words)

	refractive index detector (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		This is most commonly seen when a wave plawyeres from one medium to another.
		Refraction of light is the most commonly seen example, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves plawyer from one medium into another.
		For example, a light ray will refract as it enters and leaves gllawyer; understanding of this concept led to the invention of lenses and the refracting telescope.
	26104-index.104.nedmstick.com (1043 words)

	William Hyde Wollaston
		In the early 1800's he developed a physico-chemical method for the processing of Platinum ore, which made him a wealthy man and led him to the discovery of the chemical elements Palladium (1803) and Rhodium (1804).
		He invented various optical instruments for the measurement of angles between crystal planes, of the refraction index of transparent solids, and to aid in accurate microscopic observations.
		He noticed these while carrying out optical experiments aimed at determining refractive indices of various transparent substances, but did not attach great importance to this discovery, leaving it to Joseph von Fraunhofer to rediscover and study them in great details fifteen years later.
	www.hao.ucar.edu /Public/education/bios/wollaston.html (282 words)

	W. Edwin Sharp (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Current efforts include the hydrology of the crater basin, geochemistry of the lake waters, clay and detrital mineralogy of the lake sediment in the bottom of the lake and in the terrace deposits, the dynamics of crater formation and the genesis of the impact glasses.
		Future efforts hope to include topography of the lake bottom, profiling of the bottom sediment and seismic refraction studies of the bedrock beneath the lake.
		Ancient metallurgy: Mining activities in the near-east date right back to the beginning of the bronze age and are easily recognized by the form and nature of the slag heaps adjacent to these sites.
	www.geol.sc.edu /sharp.htm (530 words)

	Beryllium
		The metal itself is very rarely seen, a grey metal formed mainly by powder metallurgy when used as a metal, but more commonly appears as a minor constituent in alloys.
		Since the index of refraction of beryl is only 1.580, not much different from that of glass, it does not have the fire or brilliance of diamond and similar gems.
		In general, the metallurgy of beryllium is very difficult.
	www.du.edu /~jcalvert/phys/beryl.htm (1945 words)

	Basic Energy Sciences Accomplishments \| Recent Research Highlights
		The first demonstration of negative and positive refraction of visible light at the same crystal interface was recognized as one of the “Top 15 Physics News Stories of 2003” by the American Institute of Physics.
		Nature provides us with optical refraction which is always positive: that is, the incident and transmitted light through an interface of two different media are on opposite sides of the interface normal.
		The beauty of negative refraction is total transmission and zero reflection, regardless of the angle of light incidence.
	www.sc.doe.gov /production/bes/accomplishments/vignettes.html (12674 words)

	Metal and Metallurgy engineering - Why diamonds sparkle ? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		I think that the external facets have to be in some relative orientation to the crystal planes in the matl.
		It appears that the high refractive index of the diamond, and with the help of proper cutting, all the light can be reflected.
		Believe a heated diamond was used to dispense with the flogiston theory (an the diamond), by placing it into a container of pure oxygen...
	www.eng-tips.com /viewthread.cfm?qid=54431&page=126 (630 words)

	LESSONS FOR CRYONICS FROM METALLURGY AND CERAMICS (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		The scientific study of material properties has been most advanced in the areas of metallurgy and ceramics due to the importance of metal tools and structures as well as clay and glass objects in the technical progress of civilization.
		For most commercial glass this has little consequence, but in optical glass the result can be birefringence (different index of refraction in different directions).
		However, just as cryoprotectants are introduced to reduce or eliminate crystal formation, other additives may be found in cryonics which can alter material properties such as thermal expansivity, thermal conductivity stiffness or fracture strength such that liquid nitrogen temperature storage without cracking may be possible.
	www.benbest.com /cryonics/lessons.html (4852 words)

	Refraction Encyclopedia Article @ Three-quarters.net (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		MPI 6.1 now has the ability to predict birefringence (also known as double refraction), which is a phenomenon that causes optical defects in lens applications.
		Local Cache Updated: Sat Dec 2 13:40:28 2006
		Encyclopedia: Refraction of Prisms and The Spectrum of Light
	www.three-quarters.net /encyclopedia/Refraction (976 words)

	refraction - OneLook Dictionary Search
		Refraction : Eric Weisstein's World of Physics [home, info]
		Refraction : Glossary of video terms [home, info]
		Phrases that include refraction: law of refraction, atmospheric refraction, complex index of refraction, conical refraction, dynamic refraction, more...
	www.onelook.com /?w=refraction (349 words)

	refracting telescopes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		1 a : to subject (as a ray of light) to refraction b : to alter or distort as if by refraction refract that familiar world through the mind and heart of a romantic...woman -- Anton Myrer>
		1 : a usually tubular optical instrument for viewing distant objects by means of the refraction of light rays through a lens or the reflection of light rays by a concave mirror -- compare
		Close searches also return refracting telescopes: where to buy telescopes, vixen telescopes, televue telescopes, telescopes reviews, telescopes review, tal telescopes, takahashi telescopes, starmaster telescopes, small telescopes, skywatcher telescopes
	26105-telescopes.105.nedmstick.com (841 words)

	CET Syllabus
		Problems · Diffraction of light: Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction, Fraunhofer diffraction through a single slit (qualitative explanation), limit of resolution, Rayleigh's criterion, resolving powers of telescopes and microscope.
		Problems · Polarisation of light: transverse nature of light waves, methods of producing plane polarised light, Brewster's law, double refraction, dichroism, polariods and their applications, optical activity and specific rotation.
		METALLURGY General principles of metallurgy - Concentration of ores (gravity process, magnetic separation and froth flotation) - Extraction of crude metal (pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy and electro-metallurgy), Refining (Liquation, poling, electrolytic method) Occurrence, extraction, properties and uses of Sodium, Copper, Aluminium and Iron.
	www.angelfire.com /indie/arindam/syllabus.html (3088 words)

	coolrox limited - CALCITE! (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		It is a semi-soft mineral, ranking 3 on Mohs Hardness Scale, and although it is a neat mineral to collect, it is often used for such things as road base, cement, metallurgy, fertilizers, and in the chemical industry for such things as caustic soda, calcium chloride, and liquid carbon dioxide.
		The rhombohedral (slanted rectangle) crystal habit allows a clear crystal to have an optical property called double refraction (see next picture).
		In this picture, a thin optical calcite rhombohedron (weakly) shows the double refraction.
	coolrox.com /Monthrox.htm (212 words)

	Iceland spar - HighBeam Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Home > Categories > Earth and the Environment > Minerals, Mining, and Metallurgy > Mineralogy and Crystallography > Article
		Iceland spar colorless variety of crystallized calcite, characterized by its properties of transparency and double refraction.
		It is used chiefly in the manufacture of Nicol prisms, which are essential parts of polarizing microscopes and other optical instruments.
	www.encyclopedia.com /doc/1E1-icelands.html (289 words)

	DMME - Department of Metallurgy & Materials Engineering - University of Malta
		This course presents the fundamentals of materials, including metals, polymers, ceramics and semi-conductors and gives the student an appreciation of the relationship between material properties, such as strength, conductivity, ductility, etc. And the particular structure of the material.
		Heat Capacity, thermal expansion, thermal conductivity and thermal stresses.
		Refraction, reflection, absorption, transmission, colour, opacity and translucency.
	www.eng.um.edu.mt /dmme/studyunits_y1.html (130 words)

	See Details
		Technical Degrees include: all Engineering, Architecture, Aeronautics, Operations Research/Systems Analysis/Operations Analysis, Meteorology/Climatology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Mathematics, Computer Science (Math Oriented), Physics, Astronomy, Physical Sciences, and Statistics.
		PRK and LASIK not waiverable for any community if pre-surgery refraction exceeds specifications in (4).
		(7) Refraction : Myopia = -1.50, Hyperopia = +3.00 in any meridian, astigmatism = -1.00 cylinder.
	www.cnrc.navy.mil /noru/orojt/subscript.htm (430 words)

	New Material With Negative Index of Refraction (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Engineers at Purdue University are the first researchers to create a material that has a "negative index of refraction" in the wavelength of light used for telecommunications, a step that could lead to better communications and imaging technologies.
		The nanorods are an example of materials that are able to reverse a phenomenon called refraction, which occurs as electromagnetic waves, including light, bend when passing from one material into another and is caused by a change in the speed of light as it passes from one medium into another.
		Scientists measure this bending of radiation by its "index of refraction." Refraction causes the bent-stick-in-water effect, which occurs when a stick placed in a glass of water appears bent when viewed from the outside.
	www.azom.com /details.asp?newsID=4497 (3632 words)

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