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	Abacus - LoveToKnow 1911 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the same was retained in France during the medieval period; but in England, in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries was transformed into an octagonal one.
		The diminutive of Abacus, Abaciscus, is applied in architecture to the chequers or squares of a tessellated pavement.
		In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.
	www.1911encyclopedia.org /Abacus (578 words)

	Abacus
		The early counter abacus was a table with lines to represent units, tens, hundreds, etc., or to represent different units of value like pounds, shillings and pence.
		There are several references to the abacus in Roman literature, and what is apparently a Greek computing table was found in the 19th century on the island of Salamis.
		Latin writers tell of three types of abacus in use in Rome, namely: (1) the sand board or the wax tablet, (2) a marked table for counters, and (3) a table with grooves in which the counters were free to slide.
	webpages.charter.net /BrianOtte/encyclopedia_project/a/abacus.html (950 words)

	Abacus
		The suanpan (算盤 or 筭盤 suan4 pan2) of the Chinese closely resembles the Roman abacus in its construction and use.
		The Chinese abacus is usually around eight inches tall and it comes in various width depending on application, it usually has more than seven rods.
		The abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center.
	www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/ab/Abacus.html (748 words)

	Roman abacus - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The Roman abacus predates all records and specimens of the Suan Pan by centuries;
		The Roman abacus has the refinements attributed to the modern Japanese Soroban; i.e.
		The Roman abacus incorporates mixed-base arithmetic (in the two rightmost columns), another original enhancement by the Romans that is not present in any other abacus.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Roman_abacus (768 words)

	Abacus Summary
		In the mid-1800s, the 2/5 abacus was replaced by the 1/5 abacus, and, by the 1930s, the most widely used form of abacus was the Japanese-made soroban, or 1/4 abacus.
		However, for larger numbers the abacus becomes truly useful.) Subtraction is performed by first positioning beads to represent the minuend (number from which subtraction is to occur) and then removing the appropriate number of beads for the subtrahend (number which is to be subtracted).
		The abacus was intended to assist shopkeepers, tax collectors and merchants who had previously kept track of their accounts using small pebbles or stones.
	www.bookrags.com /Abacus (6686 words)

	Roman numerals Summary
		The Roman numeral system for representing numbers was developed around 500 B.C. As the Romans conquered much of the world that was known to them, their numeral system spread throughout Europe, where Roman numerals remained the primary manner for representing numbers for centuries.
		Roman roads and aqueducts remain as a testament to the engineering feats that the Romans were able to accomplish with their flawed system.
		Roman numerals are commonly used today in numbered lists (in outline format), clockfaces, pages preceding the main body of a book, chord triads in music analysis, the numbering of movie sequels, book publication dates, successive rulers with identical names, and the numbering of some sport events, such as the Olympic Games or the Super Bowls.
	www.bookrags.com /Roman_numerals (5184 words)

	Abacus presented in Science section
		Abacus is an instrument used in performing arithmetic calculations.
		A modern abacus consists of a wooden frame with beads on parallel wires, and a crossbar oriented perpendicular to the wires that divides the beads into two groups.
		On each rod, this classic Chinese abacus has 2 beads on the upper deck and 5 on the lower deck; such an abacus is also referred to as a 2/5 abacus.
	www.newsfinder.org /site/comments/abacus (916 words)

	The Abacus: A Brief History
		Both the abacus and the counting board are mechanical aids used for counting; they are not calculators in the sense we use the word today.
		Roman hand-abacus, that survive are constructed from stone and metal (as a point of reference, the Roman empire fell circa 500 A.D.).
		It is thought that early Christians brought the abacus to the East (note that both the suan-pan and the Roman hand-abacus have a vertical orientation).
	www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080 /~elf/abacus/history.html (1262 words)

	Chinese Numbers
		The abacus is familiarly associated with Chinese arithmetic, but the first abacus of the characteristic form, the suan p'an or calculating board, is recorded as late as 1593 by Ch'eng Ta-Wei.
		The Chinese abacus has an extra bead in each group, which gives alternative settings that are sometimes useful, but has essentially the same groupings, and is used in the same way.
		There is no surprise that the abacus appears in customary Chinese materials, but it would be very enlightening to find a bronze abacus, or any intermediate stage between the captive bead sliding in a slot, and the pierced bead on a rod.
	www.du.edu /~jcalvert/math/chinum.htm (1410 words)

	Ancient Roman technology - Article from FactBug.org - the fast Wikipedia mirror site
		Roman technology is the set of artifacts and customs which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military might possible over nearly a thousand years.
		The Roman Empire had the most advanced set of technologies of their time, which in many areas was lost during the dark ages, and was only equalled in the 19th and 20th centuries.
		Roman fleets were based directly on Greek triremes and much of the implements of land based Roman armies came out of the experimentation and the new developments in weapons of the Hellenistic wars that raged for decades between the successors of Alexander the Great.
	www.factbug.org /cgi-bin/a.cgi?a=1241226 (840 words)

	Abacus in various number systems (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		For more than 15 centuries the Greek and Romans and then Europeans in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance calculated on devices with authentic place-value system in which zero was represented by an empty line, wire or groove.
		Chinese suan pan is different from the European abacus in that the board is split into two parts.
		The applet represents an abacus close to the Russian variant where, for the ease of use, middle counters differ in color from all the rest.
	www.cut-the-knot.org /blue/Abacus.shtml (599 words)

	Brains to Bytes: The Evolution of Information Storage
		Information Storage in the Classical Period: 1000 BC to 1000 AD Information storage in the period of Greek and Roman ascendancy was characterized by increased use of alphabets and the development of sophisticated techniques of image creation in stone, wood, ceramics and soft media, such as animal skins and papyrus.
		The abacus and its variants are hand operated, mechanical counting devices used for computation, usually addition and subtraction, though multiplication and division are also possible.
		Versions of the abacus continue in use today, notably in Asian homes and businesses or in situations where use of a mechanical or electronic calculator is difficult.
	www.moah.org /exhibits/archives/brains/classical.html (905 words)

	Abacuses and Aqueducts - Roman Mathematics
		Roman merchants had to develop accounting and measuring systems that assisted them in keeping track of their trades as they traveled across the vast empire.
		The Roman number system was based on seven symbols: I for 1; V for 5; X for 10; L for 50; C for 100; D for 500; and M for 1,000.
		The Roman abacus was a table with columns drawn on its surface.
	www.edhelper.com /ReadingComprehension_35_196.html (425 words)

	The Roman Hand-Abacus
		In the history of mathematics, the contributions of the Roman Empire are sometimes overlooked.
		Roman Numerals are considered cumbersome and the Roman's lack of contributions to mathematics, and the lack of the Zero, are held in low esteem.
		Their empire consistently built engineering marvels: roads that survive and are used to this day, homes and bath houses with indirect heating emulated today, plumbed sewer and water lines in and out of homes and public buildings, indoor toilets, aquaducts that included long tunnels and bridges, and huge, beautiful buildings.
	www.ee.ryerson.ca /~elf/abacus/roman-hand-abacus.html (726 words)

	Abacus at Caribbean Topfunwebsites (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		:Its similarity to the Roman abacus suggests that that was the ultimate source, and this was very possible, since there were direct trade relations between the classical world and China, and Mongol traders along the Silk Road were a bridge between East and West.
		Of course, this was at the height of the Roman Empire.
		If a Roman abacus was presented to the Han Emperor in 166 CE, (no doubt the staff and merchants whom accompanied the envoy would have had abaci as well) then the intervening centuries were sufficently long enough for the Chinese to make the abacus their 'own' by adapting to their needs.
	www.topfunwebsites.com /abaco/abacus.html (2226 words)

	cooltech.iafrica.com \| new ideas \| featured The Abacus
		The abacus of today is called the "rod abacus" and operates by moving beads along narrow rods.
		The second abacus the Romans developed is called the "lined abacus." It was simply a board with lines drawn on it.
		It was Arabic numerals that doomed the Roman abacus.
	cooltech.iafrica.com /inventions/featured/201455.htm (596 words)

	算盤 Abacus Tutorial - How to use an Abacus. Japanese, Chinese abacus techniques.
		It is the Aztec abacus, and known as the nepohualtzitzin.
		During the 11th century, the Chinese abacus, or suan pan, was invented.
		The suan pan is generally regarded as the earliest abacus with beads on rods.
	webhome.idirect.com /~totton/abacus/pages.htm (8862 words)

	Roman Mathematics - Ancient Roman Empire Forums (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The romans were "if it ain't broke don't fix it" type people, and in their opinion, counting boards were just fine.
		Roman numerals are still widely used, it's true, but only on things like clocks and labels etc, not necessarily in maths because simply roman numerals are more limited (there still is no zero in roman numerals even today) and harder to use in equations.
		Using Roman numerals, for example, the total water delivered to Rome was greater than that delivered to New York City until around the 20th century, and the sanitary conditions in ancient Rome was greater than the level of that enjoyed today by about 1/2 of the modern (Arabic-numeral using) world's population.
	www.unrv.com /forum/index.php?showtopic=2999 (2840 words)

	Abacus - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		It was in use centuries before the adoption of the written Hindu-Arabic numeral system and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in the China, Japan, Hong Kong, Africa, and elsewhere.
		"Counting tray") of the Chinese is similar to the Roman abacus in principle, though has a different construction, and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics.
		The khipu of the Incas was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data (some think that it may have been used as an alphabet tool) - like advanced tally sticks—but was not used to perform calculations.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Abacus (1806 words)

	History of the Soroban
		With time, the dust abacus developed into a ruled board on which pebbles or counters were placed on lines somewhat like checkers on a backgammon board.
		Herodotus (484-425 BC) most likely refers to a line abacus in his record: “The Egyptians move their hand from right to left in calculations, while the Greeks from left to right.” A famous example of the line abacus is the Salamis Abacus preserved at the Athens Museum.
		This abacus is closely similar to the Roman grooved abacus both in construction and in the method of calculation.
	www.syuzan.net /english/history/history.html (679 words)

	Logistic
		Roman numerals are simply an input-output notation for the abacus; no one even thought of doing algorism with them, and there was never any need to do so.
		Its similarity to the Roman abacus suggests that that was the ultimate source, and this was very possible, since there were direct trade relations between the classical world and China, and Mongol traders were a bridge between East and West.
		The suan-p'an, the Chinese abacus, superseded the traditional calculating rods, and was transformed into its present form by the introduction of bamboo for the Roman brass, and beads on rods rather than buttons in slots.
	www.du.edu /~jcalvert/math/logistic.htm (5311 words)

	Technology History -- Roman Abacus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Although Roman numerals were cumbersome, Roman math was enhanced by their "pocket calculator." The Roman abacus used dumbbell shaped beads in slots or beads with holes in them threaded on bamboo slivers for manipulating numbers.
		Right: The Roman abacus is based on a Bi-quinary system with four one units (1, 10, 100, 1000, etc.) plus a single five unit (5, 50, 500, 5000, etc.).
		The number on the abacus at the right is 1,069,181 (note the implied 0 in the abacus).
	imrl.usu.edu /OSLO/technology_writing/001_003.htm (94 words)

	Good Math, Bad Math : Arithmetic on the Abacus: Part 1
		Each column on the abacus is split into two "decks", with five beads on the lower and two on the upper.
		The basic idea of the roman abacus is similar to the soroban; lower deck with four beads, upper with one.
		The main different mechanically is that the roman abacus doesn't put the beads on the wires; instead it has its beads just sitting in grooves.
	scienceblogs.com /goodmath/2006/09/arithmetic_on_the_abacus_part.php (2305 words)

	Legion XXIV - New Millennium and Why No Year Zero
		To the Romans - who ruled what was then considered the civilized world, and whose civilization would one day be the basis of our own - the year was 754AUC "Ad Urba Condita" ("From the Founding of the City") - 754 being the number of years since Romulus is said to have founded "Rome".
		The Romans were superstitious about "even" numbers, so taking a day away from the "even" 30 day months to make them an "uneven" 29 days and adding a day to January to make an uneven 29 days (February remained at 28 days) made for an "uneven" 355 day year.
		Actually, many claim it was invented by the Romans and was in common use in Europe until the opening of the seventeenth century (1600's).
	www.legionxxiv.org /dateyeartime (3960 words)

	The Tribune - Windows - Mind games
		R PROCESSOR "the computer" to Later "the calculator": "Russians used abacus, the Chinese use one and the Japanese have an own version of it; it is surprising how such a tool remained hidden from the West." Later: "Then, you’ll find it more surprising that abacus, probably, went to the East from the West.
		Mr Processor: "Romans couldn’t have used abacus; Roman numerals are cumbersome and the Roman’s lack of contribution to mathematics is legendary, because they didn’t have a zero or a place-value system."
		The abacus that can fit into your shirt pocket is made of a metal plate and the beads run in slots on it.
	www.tribuneindia.com /2003/20030301/windows/mind.htm (404 words)

	[No title]
		The Romans are not known for their contributions to the field of mathematics.
		However, the Romans did develop the hand abacus and some of the basic technology in the design led indirectly to the success of modern day computers.
		The abacus was one of the earliest calculating devices, a 'step-up' from the more primitive counting board.
	users.ju.edu /ssundbe/salamis.html (384 words)

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