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Topic: Rwandan monarchy

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	* Félix Nkundabagenzi
		Rwandan apartheid did not resist to the chocks of the emancipator vague who carried to power in 1959 the Hutu representatives.
		The attack by the Rwandan patriotic Front (FPR), regrouping mainly descendants of the former exiles Tutsi, on October 1-st, 1990 is going to contribute to toughen the Rwandan political scene.
		After their military defeat, the former Rwandan armed forces and the militias interahamawes forced 2 million Rwandan to follow them in their retreat abroad: these last ones had to be of use to them as human shield.
	www.african-geopolitics.org /show.aspx?ArticleId=3193 (3710 words)

	UNHCR - UNHCR CDR Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Rwanda
		Rwandan asylum-seekers constituted 0.4 per cent of the total number of asylum-seekers in Europe during 1997.
		During 1990-1997, the recognition rate, that is the number of positive adjudication decisions compared with the number of negative decisions, for Rwandans was relatively high: 53 per cent of all decisions pertaining to Rwandan asylum-seekers was positive (Convention refugee status) as compared to some 11 per cent for all nationalities.
		It further noted that “the Rwandan authorities claimed that civilian killings were the unintended consequence of operations justified by the needs of self-defense” (1998, 59).
	www.unhcr.org /publ/RSDCOI/3ae6a63f8.html (6634 words)

	Hutu - Encyclopedia, History, Geography and Biography
		The Tutsi monarchy survived until the end of the colonial era in the 1950s, when the Belgian rulers used the ethnic division to support their rule.
		The Tutsi monarchy soon fell and the area was divided into Rwanda and Burundi in 1962.
		The Tutsis at one point assoicated themselves with the Rwandan monarchy while the Hutu were more frequently impoverished.
	www.arikah.net /encyclopedia/Hutu (574 words)

	Chronology (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		With the influx of mostly Hutu Rwandan refugees in 1994, the situation in Eastern Zaire worsened.
		Rwandan officials said troops killed some 80 people in a crackdown in the prefecture of Ruhengeri last week after suspected Hutu gunmen killed three Spanish aid workers (Doctors of the World) on 16 January.
		Rwandan government agents were suspected, though the government blamed Hutu rivalry for his death.
	www.cidcm.umd.edu /inscr/mar/data/rwatutschro.htm (9287 words)

	Rwandan monarchy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In 1961, following a referendum in which the majority (the Hutu), voted to abolish the monarchy, a republic came into being.
		That year, the last mwami (king) Kigeri V Ndahindurwa was deposed and went into exile.
		The 1994 genocide left the country deeply traumatised, and has given rise to renewed calls for a restoration of a constitutional monarchy, as a unifying symbol for both Hutus and Tutsis.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Rwandan_monarchy (221 words)

	Rwanda genocide and Christian mission
		It is important to note that the Rwandan churches, with the special help of the wider African church, have immediately started to address these issues.
		The Rwandan church – but the Christian community all over the world – is put in the dock.
		From bitter experience in South Africa we know that the Rwandan case is not unique in terms of the political role of the churches.
	www.geocities.com /missionalia/rwanda1.htm (6764 words)

	History (HRW Report - Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda, March 1999)
		So great was Rwandan respect for European education that this faulty history was accepted by the Hutu, who stood to suffer from it, as well as by the Tutsi who helped to create it and were bound to profit from it.
		In 1986 Rwandan authorities had declared that the country was too overpopulated to permit the return of the refugees, a statement that helped spark renewed activity in the refugee community.
		Although the fighting force of the RPF is properly known as the Rwandan Patriotic Army, we use the term RPF for both the army and the political organization before July 17, 1994 in order to avoid confusion with the current Rwandan army which is also known as the RPA.
	www.hrw.org /reports/1999/rwanda/Geno1-3-09.htm (12827 words)

	FACT SHEET: Republic of Rwanda at a Glance (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		The Tutsis established a monarchy headed by a mwami (king) and a feudal hierarchy of Tutsi nobles and gentry.
		The Rwandan army was quickly defeated by the Rwandan Patriotic Front and fled across the border to Zaire followed by some two million refugees who fled to Zaire, Tanzania, and Burundi.
		Less than 100,000 Rwandans are estimated to remain outside of Rwanda and they are thought to be the remnants of the defeated army of the former genocidal government, its allies in the civilian militias known as Interahamwe, and soldiers recruited in the refugee camps before 1996.
	deploymentlink.osd.mil /deploy/info/africa/rwanda/index.shtml (1607 words)

	Welcome to the official web site of His Majesty King Kigeli V (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		In examining both 'official' histories of the Rwandan state as well as actual 'lived' histories of ordinary Rwandans, the paper finds that the ethnicization of these terms is recent, not ancient, and politically constructed, not primordially vested.
		According to court interpretations of Rwandan history, the pre-Rwandan state was inhabited by scattered groups of cultivators (the Hutu) and forest dwellers (the Twa).
		Maquet, who characterization of Rwandan society as a caste system most scholars now reject, nevertheless emphasizes that Hutu, Tutsi and Twa were not "racial units," and that despite the closed nature of the system, mobility between groups was possible and did occur, albeit rarely.
	www.king-kigeli.com /misc/fujii.htm (8990 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		They destroyed Rwandan nationalism by introducing their hutu-tutsi superficial tribalism that set the stage for the nation's cyclicalgenocides that culminated in the holocaust 1994,where over one million lives were sacrificed in just three months.
		Rwandan refugees like anyone else,had their inalienable right to return to their homeland peacefully or otherwise,but all their plights to the UN,to local governments,to the media and to the rest of the International Community fell constantly on deaf ears all that time.
		Rwandans had learned very well how to seek, to develop and to reward such outstanding talents and faculties,and there is no reason to suggest that tutsi kids were the only ones endowed with the exclusive monopoly of such god given talents.
	users.skynet.be /wirira/rwandais.htm (4760 words)

	Voices from Africa
		Hence the idea that the ethnic divide between Rwandan Hutu, Tutsi and Twa is the result of an historical process in the course of which these peoples have come to internalize their ethnic background.
		I shall be looking at the way in which an ethnic vision has become an issue for the Rwandans and the way in which ethnicity has become a dividing factor—not necessarily a source of conflict—in their social life.
		In the trend toward decolonization, the trustee powers decided to give up their support of the Tutsi monarchy in order to indulge the demands of a few Hutu elite who were calling for the rulers to be overthrown.
	www.un-ngls.org /documents/publications.en/voices.africa/number8/7sebahara.htm (2146 words)

	Foreign Policy In Focus - Self-Determination - Regional Conflict Profile - Rwanda
		By the 15th century, a monarchy had established itself and had begun to expand its territory through a combination of military conquest and the extension of its patronage.
		The monarchy controlled nearly all the area currently encompassed by the modern state of Rwanda by the time German colonists arrived in 1903.
		Charging Kabila with supporting Rwandan antigovernment militia still present in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, formerly Zaire), both the RPA and Ugandan armed forces attempted to overthrow him in August 1998 but were thwarted by the intervention of Zimbabwean and Angolan troops.
	selfdetermine.irc-online.org /conflicts/rwanda_body.html (2714 words)

	Catholic Culture : Document Library : Defamation Campaign in Rwanda
		The group accuses him on the basis of a 1959 pastoral letter in which he asks, in the name of charity, that an end be put to the privileges of one ethnic group over another, suggesting social reforms and greater democracy.
		At the time Rwanda was still a monarchy and was governed by the Tutsi ethnic group, while Hutus, the majority of the population, were considered slaves.
		Bishop Misago's arrest exactly five years after the massacres has to be considered the latest act in a Rwandan government strategy to reduce or eliminate the reconciliatory role that the Church has historically played in Rwanda's past and still plays today, by trying in every way to tarnish her image.
	www.catholicculture.org /docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=1083 (1447 words)

	ABC News: Renowned Rwandan Singer Goes on Trial
		The sight of the singer on trial was unusual, but the key role of propaganda in the Rwandan genocide has been well-documented.
		Jallow told The Associated Press that three of Bikindi's songs are at the heart of the trial, one of which calls on Hutus to remember the suffering under the Tutsi monarchy.
		The genocide started hours after Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana's plane was mysteriously shot down over Kigali on April 6, 1994, as he returned home from peace talks with Tutsi-led rebels.
	abcnews.go.com /International/wireStory?id=2458787 (395 words)

	Rwanda:Regime of Rwanda
		Consequently, the Rwandan house was in a state of bankruptcy, the social basic services worsen, infant mortality increased, malaria, food shortage, drug trafficking and corruption all reappeared subsequently.
		This was the situation that Rwandans have had to face until 1994, when Habyarimana’s airplane crashed in his presidential garden, the death of the dictator marked the beginning of auto self-destruction for all Rwandans.
		Rwandans are obedient people; this social behavior is according to different specialists explained by their historical heritage of monarchy, and German, Belgian colonial past.
	www.empereur.com /nations/rwanda/regime.html (5496 words)

	Mrs. Cunningham TeacherWeb Economics Course Readings (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		The Rwandan crisis has become encapsulated in a continuous agenda of donor roundtables (held in Paris), cease-fire agreements, peace talks...These various initiatives have been closely monitored and coordinated by the donor community in a tangled circuit of 'conditionalities' (and cross- conditionalities).
		And in many respects the Rwandan 1990 devaluation appears almost as a 'laboratory test case' as well as a threatening 'danger signal' for the devaluation of the CFA franc implemented on the instructions of the IMF and the French Treasury in January 1994 by the same amount, 50%.
		So great was Rwandan respect for European education that this faulty history was accepted by the Hutu, who stood to suffer from it, as well as by the Tutsi who helped to create it and were bound to profit from it.
	teacherweb.com /PA/NASD/PatriciaCunningham/faq1.stm (10810 words)

	Rwanda (03/07)
		Under MRND aegis, Rwandans went to the polls in December 1978, overwhelmingly endorsed a new constitution, and confirmed President Habyarimana as president.
		The Rwandan Army was quickly defeated by the RPF and fled across the border to Zaire followed by some 2 million refugees who fled to Zaire, Tanzania, and Burundi.
		Following withdrawal of Rwandan Armed Forces from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in October 2002, the government completely restructured the military and launched an ambitious plan to demobilize thousands of soldiers.
	www.state.gov /r/pa/ei/bgn/2861.htm (4094 words)

	Kagame, Alexis, Rwanda, Catholic
		From the 1940s on, he was the intellectual leader of the Rwandan Tutsis, defending their traditions and position against colonial control.
		Back in Rwanda, he lectured in Rwandan Literature at the Junior Seminary (1955-57) and became a lecturer in philosophy and general history at the Astrida Groupe Scolaire.
		When the National University of Rwanda was founded at Butare (formerly Astrida) in 1963, he became the professor of Rwandan Literature and History and Professor of Rwandan Language at the associated teachers training college (National Institute of Pedagogy).
	www.dacb.org /stories/rwanda/kagame_1alexis.html (1570 words)

	Rwanda's collective amnesia.
		A Rwandan boy in a Catholic church which is now a memorial to the genocide.
		All this is keeping Rwandans from the task of remembering their past, especially since state-endorsed ethnic attitudes still condition the Hutu killers to think they killed their historic neighbours to ensure the survival of their own ethnic group.
		The new Rwandan authorities may want to curb individual score-settling and encourage national reconciliation, but the ragtag soldiers who carried out the 1994 massacres are still lurking in the forests of neighbouring Congo and have not given up their plans to exterminate the Tutsis.
	www.unesco.org /courier/1999_12/uk/dossier/txt08.htm (1507 words)

	Current Zaire Crisis Is Extension of Rwandan War (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		He was joined by Mulegwa Zihindula, who runs a literacy project in the Bukavu area, which was taken by a group of Tutsi "rebels," the Banyamulenge, at the end of October.
		Before the Rwandan Patriotic Front gained control and pushed the Hutus from power, an estimated 800,000 had been massacred.
		"The Rwandan government is using the magnitude of the genocide to hide their agenda," he said.
	gbgm-umc.org /africa/rwanda/rwanda1.html (499 words)

	Hamilton College - News, Sports, Events - Rwandan Genocide Survivor Theobald Gakwaya Lectures at Hamilton
		Theobald Gakwaya, a Rwandan genocide survivor, lectured with the aid of a translator at Hamilton College’s Science Center Auditorium to a large group of students and faculty on the issue of Rwandan genocide on September 18.
		Gakwaya was a minister to the Rwandan government for one year and has since dedicated his efforts to human rights issues.
		As a counterattack, the Rwandan Patriotic Front organized a force to enter the capital and free Tutsi troops, but the force that initially appeared to support liberation quickly became an occupational force.
	www.hamilton.edu /news/more_news/display.cfm?ID=11139 (999 words)

	Shameful silence of the Rwandan church (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		When religious leaders did speak, their statements were so equivocal or misleading as to be seen by many Rwandans as an endorsement of the slaughter.
		The Tutsi priest I was talking to dug out an April 1972 document from a group of young Hutu priests pleading for their white archbishop and four Rwandan bishops to purge the church of Tutsi "domination".
		Havugimana is secretary of the Episcopal Conference in Kigali, director of the Catholic aid agency Caritas in Rwanda, and head of the Rwandan branch of the Legion of Mary, an Irish evangelical network.
	www.hvk.org /articles/0300/16.html (987 words)

	Renowned Rwandan singer goes on trial - Boston.com
		A renowned Rwandan singer went on trial Monday before a U.N. tribunal, accused of writing lyrics that incited murders during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda.
		The sight of the singer on trial was unusual, but the key role of propaganda in the Rwandan genocide has been well-documented.
		The genocide started hours after Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana's plane was mysteriously shot down over Kigali on April 6, 1994, as he returned home from peace talks with Tutsi-led rebels.
	www.boston.com /news/world/africa/articles/2006/09/18/renowned_rwandan_singer_goes_on_trial?mode=PF (380 words)

	Wide Angle . Ladies First . Handbook: Rwanda's Challenges \| PBS
		In June of 2002, he initiated village-based "gacaca" (meaning "on the grass") trials which were meant to reduce the immense backlog of legal cases pending from the 1994 genocide.
		Over the course of 2003, the Rwandan government moved to close its transitional phase begun in 1994 and to establish a solid political foundation for the future of the country.
		Though the court charged Bizimungu with three separate crimes, the underlying reason for his indictment were his attempts to launch a political party in opposition to the RPF after his resignation in 2000.
	www.pbs.org /wnet/wideangle/shows/rwanda/handbook4.html (1120 words)

	\| Bringing the Peasants Back In: Agrarian Themes in the Construction and Corrosion of Statist Historiography in Rwanda ...
		Because of their numbers (less than 1 percent of the Rwandan population), cultural diversity, and economic marginality, Twa were not often accounted for in political analyses; instead, they were usually relegated to the status of exotic appendages to Rwandan society.
		The earliest written accounts on the Rwandan monarchy reflected those of the earlier oral accounts: they often stressed the regional roots to historical knowledge and emphasized the complicated combination between the penetration of royal power and the sometimes superficial character of royal rule.
		In sum, in responding to this perceived external threat, the new "doxic" vision of Rwandan history consolidated the administrative, court, and missionary perspectives into a single secular narrative, one later to be taught in the schools, promulgated in the press, legitimated in academic works, and "confirmed" in diplomatic handbooks.
	www.historycooperative.org /journals/ahr/105.3/ah000832.html (12691 words)

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