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Topic: Santa Marta montane forests

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	Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at AllExperts
		The montane forests are separated from other moist forests by the lower-elevation dry forests and xeric shrublands, and have large numbers of endemic species.
		The montane forests ecoregion has several distinct plant communities, distinguished by altitude and rainfall; moist lowland forests cover the windward northern and western flanks of the range between 500 and 900 meters elevation, and the drier eastern and southern flanks from 800 to 1000 meters elevation.
		The Santa Marta PÃ¡ramo, a high altitude belt of montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with marshes and acid bogs, occupies the zone between 3300 and 4500-5000 meters.
	en.allexperts.com /e/s/si/sierra_nevada_de_santa_marta.htm (563 words)

	Tropical_rainforest - Thagodz Wiki (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Tropical and subtropical forest regions with lower rainfall are home to Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
		Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests are common in several terrestrial ecozones, including parts of the Afrotropic (equatorial Africa), Indomalaya (parts of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), the Neotropic (northern South America and Central America), Australasia (eastern Indonesia, New Guinea, northern and eastern Australia), and Oceania (the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean).
		In deciduous and semi-deciduous forests, or forests where the canopy is disturbed for some reason, the ground beneath is soon colonised by a dense tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees called jungle.
	www.thagodz.com /search/wiki/?title=Tropical_rainforest (2237 words)

	Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Santa Marta montane forests (NT0159) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		This ecoregion, then, is an island of montane forests surrounded by a sea of dry forests, which has led to the evolution of many endemic plant and animal species.
		Forests within this ecoregion vary according to altitude and rainfall.
		At higher elevations, cloud forests gradually give way to elfin forests, which are short, dense forests of trees that are highly gnarled and almost impenetrable.
	www.nationalgeographic.com /wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0159.html (504 words)

	Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Summary
		The forest understory is composed of small trees and shrubs growing between the trunks of the major trees, as well as climbing woody vines (lianas) and many epiphytes—mainly orchids, bromeliads, and arboreal ferns—that attach themselves to the trees.
		The layered communities of a tropical rain forest are directly related to the gradual lessening of light, from the brightness of the canopy to the dense shade of the forest floor.
		Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests are common in several terrestrial ecozones, including parts of the Afrotropic (equatorial Africa), Indomalaya (parts of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), the Neotropic (northern South America and Central America), Australasia (eastern Indonesia, New Guinea, and northern Australia), and Oceania (the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean).
	www.bookrags.com /Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests (2326 words)

	Mountains, biodiversity and conservation
		Intermediate-altitude forest with a predominance of Pinus, Juniper, Abies and Cupressus
		For instance, at altitudes of between 200 and 2 800 m, the vegetation in the Duida-Marahuaka National Park in Venezuela is diverse, consisting of forests, shrubland, grassland and savannah, in addition to pioneer vegetation on sandstone rock faces; in submontane and montane tepui forests floristic diversity and endemism are exceptional (Dezzeo and Huber, 1995).
		Gradstein, S.R. Diversity of Hepaticae and Anthoceratoe in montane forests of the tropical Andes.
	www.fao.org /docrep/W9300E/w9300e09.htm (4009 words)

	Conservation Ecology: Distribution and causes of global forest fragmentation
		Because human land uses tend to expand over time, forests that share a high proportion of their borders with anthropogenic uses are at higher risk of further degradation than forests that share a high proportion of their borders with non-forest, natural land cover (e.g., wetland).
		Forests may be fragmented by a number of activities or events, such as road construction, logging, conversion to agriculture, or wildfire, but ultimately, the fragmenting cause is either anthropogenic or natural in origin.
		At least half the biome area was “connected” forest in 18 of the 36 combinations of biome and continent (Table 4), and 11 of the 18 cases were in North and South America.
	www.ecologyandsociety.org /vol7/iss2/art7/inline.html (4686 words)

	Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Santa Marta montane forests (NT0159)
		This montane ecoregion is a characteristic moist forest; however, it rises from very different habitat of xeric scrub and dry forest that surround it.
		The flora of the wet lowland forests is different from that in the cloud forests of the middle and high mountain areas and they have little in common.
		The cloud forests of the high mountains appear changed and simplified in the altitudinal limit with the high plateau where sheep and cattle are raised, potato and fruits are grown and useful woods are extracted.
	www.worldwildlife.org /wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0159_full.html (2456 words)

	CPD: South America overview, centres of plant diversity and endemism, Andes
		This forest band is usually subdivided into about three altitudinal zones: premontane or submontane forest extending up to (1000-) 1500 m, lower montane or tropical montane forest between c.
		The transition between premontane and montane forest around 1500 m elevation is usually associated with the dew-line or cloud-line and is characterized especially by an abruptly greater density of both vascular and non-vascular epiphytes (Terborgh 1971; Cleef et al.
		The transition from lower montane to upper montane forest around 2500 m tends to be associated with the 12°C isohyet of average annual temperature (Holdridge 1967; RivasMartínez and Tovar 1982).
	www.nmnh.si.edu /botany/projects/cpd/sa/sa-vi.htm (3654 words)

	Forests in the time of Violence (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Forest remnants in the Colombian Amazon, Andes, and Chocó are the last repositories of a highly diverse and endemic biota.
		In the Colombian Amazon, the forests of the upper and middle Guaviare, Caquetá, and upper Putumayo river basins are in municipalities with ongoing conflict.
		The second involves forest fragmentation pressures from illicit crop growers and cattle ranchers in areas that are beyond the rule of law and/or contested by armed groups.
	www.columbia.edu /~mda2001/FV.html (6320 words)

	GLOBAL ECOLOGICAL ZONING FOR THE GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT 2000
		The Andean forests depend on two main factors: precipitation, which determines, from one extreme to the other, hyperhumid forests or dry thorn forests and altitude (or temperature) which allows a distinction to be made between submontane and montane forests.
		This forest tends to be lower than that of the surrounding lowland area, the upper canopy at 25 — 30 m, with fewer woody vines and less-buttressed trees.
		These forests are transitional to the scrub- and grasslands at higher altitudes in which N. betuloides occurs scattered among the shrubs Chiliotrichum diffusum and Empetrum rubrum.
	www.fao.org /docrep/006/ad652e/ad652e18.htm (5282 words)

	Hotspots Revisited
		The hotspot is bounded roughly by the Tropic of Capricorn to the south and by the natural termini of the Andes to the north in Colombia and Venezuela (including the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia and the Cordillera de la Costa montane forests in Venezuela).
		The western border of the hotspot is marked by the eastern edge of the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Hotspot, while on the eastern slope of the Andes, in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, the border extends down to 500 m, a realistic cutoff point between the Andean slopes and the Amazonian lowlands.
		Within the sub-Andean forest belt, vegetation begins to transition at around 1 500 m, at which point the plant family Lauraceae becomes the dominant element (Cuatrecasas 1958; Langendoen and Gentry, 1991; Dodson and Gentry, 1991).
	www.biodiversityscience.org /publications/hotspots/TropicalAndes.html (2369 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Montane grasslands have the highest propor- We stop short of identifying specific investment pri- tion of Globally or Regionally Outstanding ecore- orities within ecoregions, which should be done only gions, followed by tropical moist broadleaf forests.
		Tropical dry broadleaf forests are over with distance (beta diversity), with flora and the second most numerous set of ecoregions, some fauna showing similar guild structures and life his- of which are among the smallest.
		Such for- coniferous forests), tropical dry broadleaf forests are mations are considered as a single unit for the pur- clustered around the smallest size categories and poses of this analysis if they are geographically temperate forests-except for the Chilean winter- clustered (e.g., Tepuis) or maintain some level of rain forests-among the larger units.
	www-wds.worldbank.org /servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1995/09/01/000009265_3961219113255/Rendered/INDEX/multi_page.txt (12914 words)

	Biodiversity Hotspots - Tropical Andes - Overview
		The cloud forests are facing increased pressure from hydroelectric dams, and invasive species like the American bullfrog and grasses for cattle grazing are becoming problems as well.
		In the east, the hotspot reaches down to 500 meters in elevation, a cutoff between the forests of the Andean slopes and the Amazonian lowlands.
		Various types of cloud forests extend from 800 to 3,500 meters, including the montane cloud forests (yungas, ceja de selva, or ceja de la montaña) that cover more than 500,000 km² in Peru and Bolivia and are among the richest and most diverse forests on Earth.
	www.conservation.org /xp/Hotspots/andes/index.xml (611 words)

	CPD: South America, Site SA25, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia
		Along a transect from 4300 m to 500 m on the massif, the vegetation ranges through fields and thickets of the páramos, dwarf to montane forests in the middle elevations, and premontane forests in the lower equatorial region.
		The Santa Marta mountains are a discrete Endemic Bird Area (EBA B08); 15 bird species are restricted to the EBA and a further seven species shared with other EBAs.
		Fundación Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (a non-governmental organization) assists INDERENA in the management of Alto de Mira and Filo Cartagena ranger districts through the Parks in Peril Program of The Nature Conservancy (U.S.), which has as a principal objective conservation of biological diversity, by financial and technical support to ensure adequate on-the-ground protection.
	www.nmnh.si.edu /botany/projects/cpd/sa/sa25.htm (2584 words)

	UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Four protected areas in north Madagascar; tropical dry and moist evergreen forest; one of country's richest areas of biodiversity and ecological diversity; transition zone between dry deciduous and eastern moist forest permits a species rich transition zone with high endemism, karstic pinnacles, caves, etc.; rivers are only year round water source for local people.
		Kinabulu NP 75,400ha park north Sabah; lowland montane tropical rainforest; high biodiversity with 75 of Borneo's 135 ficus species (13 endemic), and 72 Fagaceae species; 25% of fauna species are endemic, 290 species of butterfly and moth; 4094m Mt. Kinabulu.
		Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta BR Over 1.5 million ha area in the Cordillera Central, the highest coastal range of mountains in Colombia; rich variety of flora and fauna in the dense rain forest covering the northern slopes; southern slopes are drier; inhabited by the Kogi and Arhuaco Indians;
	www.unep-wcmc.org /wh/reviews/forests/t8.htm (1194 words)

	Espeletia Intro
		The southernmost extent of the range is a disjunct population in an isolated páramo of central Ecuador known as the Serranía de Llanganates.
		Many of the morphological and physiological traits of the giant rosettes are thought to be adaptations to the harsh tropical montane climate, which is subjected to frequent frosts and high levels of solar radiation.
		These species are found from the montane forests at about 2800 meters, to the edge of the glaciers at 4600 meters, and have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, from steep talus slopes and xeric rock outcrops, to wet marshes and bogs.
	www.evoandes.net /espeletiapage/intro.html (787 words)

	More Info on tropical rain forest - - tropical rainforest - - tropical rain forrest
		Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, also known as tropical rain forests, are a tropical and subtropical biome.
		Tropical and subtropical regions with lower rainfall or distinct wet and dry seasons are home to Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
		Trinidad and Tobago moist forests (Trinidad and Tobago)
	www.usgovernetics.com /Tra-to-Uni/tropical_rain_forest.php (1209 words)

	WWF - Conservation of the Northern Andes Ecoregional Complex of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru
		The northwestern limit is the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia).
		The southern limit of the complex is the Abra de Porculla mountain pass in the Huancabamba depression (Perú), which serves as a biogeographic barrier to species movement, separating the northern and southern Andes.
		The NAE comprises approximately 600,000 square kilometers of tropical montane forests and paramos.
	www.panda.org /about_wwf/where_we_work/latin_america_and_caribbean/index.cfm?uProjectID=9L0805 (695 words)

	Ecosystem Profile: Northern Region, Mesoamerica
		One of the environmental tasks that governments have undertaken is an effort to save the forests and protect their biodiversity from the threat of agricultural and urban expansion and uncontrolled logging.
		However, on windswept higher slopes and peaks lower montane wet forest is present and in the extreme northern portion a subtropical pluvial forest covers the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes.
		Stakeholders report that forest fires have not received the attention they deserve and that greater consideration needs to be paid to this threat.
	www.cepf.net /xp/cepf/where_we_work/mesoamerica/northmesoamerica/full_strategy.xml (13238 words)

	Biological diversity in the Tropical Andes - Encyclopedia of Earth
		The forests of the Tropical Andes are floristically different from their lowland counterparts in that they contain significant representation of Laurasian plant families and genera not found in the lowlands, as well as Gondwana-derived taxa.
		However, the puna and parámo grasslands that extend from the cloud forests to the snow line are still very diverse, harboring as many as 800 species, many of these local endemics.
		Extensive cultivation of opium poppy has led to the clearing of thousands of hectares of montane forests and the spread of chemical herbicides through rivers and streams that pose additional threats to plant and animal species, especially amphibians.
	www.eoearth.org /article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Tropical_Andes (3009 words)

	Parks in Peril \| Colombia \| Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park \| Protected Area
		The northern location of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is ideal for migratory birds traveling from South America to the US and Canada.
		Since the 1950s, about 85% of the forest in the region has been removed and continues to be the principal threat to Sierra Nevada.
		The situation worsens as forests are clear cut for farmland, steep hills without vegetation are eroding and the soil is washing down and choking the rivers and streams with topsoil and dust.
	www.parksinperil.org /wherewework/southamerica/colombia/protectedarea/sierra.html (750 words)

	Neotropic - Wikipedia Mirror US (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest (tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests) than any other ecozone, extending from southern Mexico through Central America and northern South America to southern Brazil, including the vast Amazon Rainforest.
		These rainforests are also home to a diverse array of indigenous peoples, who to varying degrees persist in their autonomous and traditional cultures and subsistence within this environment.
		The number of these peoples who are as yet relatively untouched by external influences continues to decline significantly, however, along with the near-exponential expansion of urbanization, roads, pastoralism and forest industries which encroach on their customary lands and environment.
	www.wiki-mirror.us /index.php/Neotropic (678 words)

	Papers about frogs (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Frogs of this species group are distributed in cloud forests of Colombia and Ecuador as well as at lower elevations in the western Amazon basin (Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) and along the frontier between Colombia and Panama.
		The encounter of dead or dying frogs of seven cloud forest species in July 1997 during an unusually dry period in the Serranía de los Paraguas could be an indication of a collapse of a rich fauna.
		One of these occurs in the transition between lowland forests and cloud forests in northwestern Colombia, one is found in cloud forests of western Antioquia, another is found in cloud forests between Cali and Popayán, and the remainder are species found on the Serranía de los Paraguas.
	www.accefyn.org.co /ranas/frogs/papers.htm (1078 words)

	Equal Earth - Paintings - Neotropic
		Most of the Pernambuco Coastal Forests have been cleared in the last century, first by people logging for Brazil wood and later by the sugarcane industry.
		Today, forest remnants are legally protected, but agriculture, logging, and hunting still persist.
		Today, most of the forests are represented by small isolated fragments--some of which represent the last stand for many endemic species.
	www.equalearth.org /neotropic6.htm (668 words)

	Earth Foundation - The World’s Largest In-School Conservation Organization
		The connection between the montane forests of the higher elevations to the Atlantic moist forests of the lowlands provides a crucial biological link for many birds and animals.
		FAN and the Conservancy recently reached an agreement with the United States Forest Service and will be working together to frirther develop and implement forest management plans with the local communities.
		To date, activities on the newly acquired parcel of land include the establishment of sixty permanent carbon monitoring plots that will be re-measured every two years, an intensive bird census, the establishment of hiking trails, and ranger patrolling to protect from poachers.
	www.earthfound.com /participate/update.html (4171 words)

	WWF - Northern Andean Montane Forests - A Global Ecoregion
		This Global ecoregion is made up of these terrestrial ecoregions: Magdalena Valley montane forests; Venezuelan Andes montane forests; Northwestern Andean montane forests; Cauca Valley montane forests; Cordillera Oriental montane forests; Santa Marta montane forests; Eastern Cordillera real montane forests.
		These are likely to be the richest tropical montane forests on Earth, with very high levels of regional and local endemism.
		In addition to harbouring most of the world's Spectacled bears (Tremarctos ornatus) - the only species of bear to be found in Central and South America, this ecoregion is home to an incredible variety of plants and animals.
	www.panda.org /about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/northandean_montane_forests.cfm (288 words)

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