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Topic: Saxitoxin

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	Saxitoxin
		Saxitoxin is usually consumed thought the eating of bivalve shellfish, such as clams or muscles [6].
		Bivalve shellfish accumulate saxitoxin by feeding on the toxic dinoflagellate algae.
		Saxitoxin’s name comes from saxidomus giganteus (the butter clam) from which the chemical was first extracted and identified [1].
	mason.gmu.edu /~dniessen/chem350/project/toxin/saxitoxin.htm (691 words)

	R-Biopharm AG : Residues - FAST Saxitoxin (PSP) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Saxitoxin (PSP), the major component of PSP, is responsible for respiratory paralysis which in 8 % of cases results in death.
		Using the RIDASCREEN®FAST Saxitoxin assay, it is possible to detect this toxin in mussels and shellfish both rapidly and with accuracy.
		The specificity of the RIDASCREEN®FAST Saxitoxin assay was established by analyzing the cross reactivity to the corresponding toxins.
	www.r-biopharm.com /foodandfeed/ridascreenfast_saxitoxin_psp.php (268 words)

	Saxitoxin - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The medical importance of saxitoxin is in relation to red tide in shellfish and causes the paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) food poisoning.
		The blocking of the sodium channel produces a flaccid paralysis that leaves its victim calm and conscious through the progression of symptoms.
		Though its early isolation and characterization were related to military efforts, saxitoxin has been more important to cellular research in describing the function of the sodium channel.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Saxitoxin (157 words)

	Saxitoxin: essential data
		Saxitoxin binds to the sodium channel of the nerve preventing the passage of sodium ions through the cell membrane and therefore blocks passage of the nerve impulse.
		Saxitoxin for research use is usually extracted from the siphons of clams contaminated by red tide.
		Saxitoxin is toxic by ingestion and by inhalation, with inhalation leading to rapid respiratory collapse and death.
	www.cbwinfo.com /Biological/Toxins/Saxitoxin.html (265 words)

	Welcome to R-Biopharm AG homepage (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Saxitoxin, the major component of PSP, is responsible for respiratory paralysis which in 8 % of cases results in death.
		Saxitoxin blocks the sodium ion channels in nervous and muscle membranes.
		Using the RIDASCREEN® Saxitoxin assay, it is possible to detect this toxin in shellfish both rapidly and with accuracy.
	www.r-biopharm.com /foodandfeed/ridascreen_saxitoxin_psp.php (264 words)

	The University of Maine - News - January 31, 2006 - Clam Research Sheds New Light on Red Tide
		Connell's report, Sodium channel mutation leads to saxitoxin resistance in clams increases risk of PSP, was the culmination of more than eight years of intensive research by an international team of scientists aimed at achieving a better understanding of a notorious and potentially deadly compound known at saxitoxin.
		Saxitoxin is the primary culprit in cases of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning, or PSP, the always dangerous, sometimes-deadly consequence of the coastal phenomenon known as red tide.
		Thanks to a mutation in their genetic code, red tide resistant clams were able to survive and reproduce despite the presence of saxitoxin, eventually becoming the dominant strain in clam populations that are frequently exposed to red tide.
	www.umaine.edu /news/article.asp?id_no=1163 (606 words)

	Biotoxins, aquatic (marine and freshwater) (EHC 37, 1984)
		Saxitoxin affects the excitable membrane of single nerves and muscle fibres by blocking selectively the sodium channel through which the downhill movement of sodium ions accounts for the initiation of the electrical impulse.
		Though the chemical structure of tetrodotoxin is entirely different from that of saxitoxin, the effects it induces in animals are very similar; the mouse assay developed for PSP has also been used for the detection of tetrodotoxin in the assessment of exposure.
		Saxitoxin levels as low as about 400 µg/kg can be detected by the procedure, and the sensitivity is reduced with increased salt (NaCl) concentrations in the extract.
	www.inchem.org /documents/ehc/ehc/ehc37.htm (16426 words)

	Molecule of the Month: SAXITOXIN
		Saxitoxin is about 1000 times more toxic than a typical synthetic nerve gas such as sarin, and it is perhaps not surprising that in the 1950s, the
		Cyclisation to provide the saxitoxin skeleton was accomplished readily by treatment with acid, the reaction proceeding via the intermediacy of an iminium ion.
		The key step of Jacobi's synthesis of saxitoxin relied on formation of a benzylhydrazide intermediate, which was subjected to methyl glyoxylate hemimethyl acetal and a Lewis acid, in order to construct a highly reactive azomethine imine, which subsequently underwent an intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction, leading to an advanced tetracyclic intermediate.
	www.bris.ac.uk /Depts/Chemistry/MOTM/stx/saxi1.htm (775 words)

	S/78/1998
		It was understood that the issue of saxitoxin transfers remained on the agenda of the Executive Council.
		No specific antidote to saxitoxin is presently available, with the result that a significant proportion of PSP intoxications result in death.
		Saxitoxin is rapidly emerging as one of the global public health problems of the twenty-first century.
	www.opcw.org /html/global/s_series/98/s78_98.html (2607 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		saxitoxin blocks the sodium channels in neurons, which regulate the electrical charge used to transmit signals by allowing sodium ions to flow in and out of the cells.
		This protein, latter called saxiphilin for its affinity for saxitoxin, was differentiated from the protein channel binding sites by comparing its binding affinity with tetrodotoxin, another neurotoxin which did not bind to saxiphilin (Moczydlowski et al., 1988b).
		If a fluorescent tag activated by saxitoxin binding could be attached to saxiphilin and a low cost procedure could be developed for the manufacture of fluorescently tagged saxiphilin, the result would be very useful for testing.
	www.clarkson.edu /honors/research/summer_papers/Mangan-Niall.doc (982 words)

	Saxitoxin poisoning, puffer fish - USA: alert (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin together, and saxitoxin alone, in freshwater pufferfish have been reported in waters near Thailand (5) and Bangladesh (6).
		Saxitoxin and its analogs are produced by dinoflagellates of the Gonyaulacoid family.
		Saxitoxin as a toxic principle of a freshwater puffer, Tetraodon fangi, in Thailand.
	library.kcc.hawaii.edu /external/praise/news/eh190.html (1256 words)

	Epi Update - July 23, 2004
		Saxitoxin blocks ”neural transmission at the neuromuscular junction by binding to the surface of the sodium channels and interrupting the flow of the Na ions; atrioventricular nodal conduction may be suppressed, and there may be direct suppression of the respiratory center and progressive reduction of peripheral nerve excitability (Klaassen, 2001).”
		The presence of saxitoxin in the urine of two patient cases confirms the agent of this outbreak was severe neurological illness.
		The presence of saxitoxin in the four fried pufferfish filets confirms pufferfish as the vehicle of transmission.
	www.doh.state.fl.us /disease_ctrl/epi/Epi_Updates/Epi_Weekly/07-23-04.htm (3563 words)

	Saxitoxin poisoning, puffer fish - USA (02) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		As of May 15, 2002, a total of 13 presumptive cases of saxitoxin poisoning were reported in Florida residents who ate pufferfish caught in waters near Titusville, Florida.
		Because saxitoxin poisoning is usually associated with mollusks, CFSAN and the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services sampled approximately 100 hard-shell clams from aquaculture lease sites at five locations along the Indian River Lagoon, including the Titusville area in Florida.
		Saxitoxin has been reported in pufferfish from the Far East (8) and the Philippines (9).
	library.kcc.hawaii.edu /praise/news/puffer2.html (1303 words)

	Gonyaulax acknowledgements
		Saxitoxin is 1,000 times more toxic than the potent nerve gas sarin.
		Saxitoxin's exotic and illustrious past includes being used by the CIA in the 1950's as suicide pills for its agents.
		Saxitoxin is a potent neurotoxin that specifically and selectively binds the sodium channels in neural cells.
	www.mbari.org /~conn/botany/dinos/alimon/toxicity.htm (449 words)

	Professor Justin Du Bois
		Current efforts are also aimed at the preparation of saxitoxin and aconitine, both of which are known to act on voltage-gated Na+ ion channels.
		In combination with our progress towards a saxitoxin synthesis, we are preparing structural mimics of this target that maintain many of the key architectural elements thought to be essential for its bioactivity.
		Saxitoxin is known to block ion channel conductance by occluding the mouth of the channel pore.
	www.stanford.edu /dept/chemistry/faculty/dubois (821 words)

	Alaska Sea Grant Project R/95-03 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		To identify the genes involved in the synthesis of saxitoxins, the etiological agents of paralytic shellfish poisoning.
		Transformants carrying the "saxitoxin genes," and hence the genetic material required for saxitoxin synthesis, will be initially identified via HPLC and subsequently confirmed by more rigorous assays.
		Experiments that include cloning of "saxitoxin genes" can be conducted under Biosafety Level 1 (the lowest level) according to NIH guidelines, and hence are not considered to be a significant health risk.
	www.uaf.edu /seagrant/research/postaward/R95-03.html (1322 words)

	AIMS Media Release December 22, 1999
		Saxitoxin, the poison that causes paralytic shellfish poisoning or PSP, is so potent the UN Chemical Weapons Convention lists it among the leading chemical weapons of war.
		AIMS scientist Dr Lyndon Llewellyn became interested in saxitoxin, which kills hundreds of people worldwide every year, while studying in the United States, although he had to suspend his work until the research ban was lifted.
		Saxitoxin, found in a variety of molluscs and crabs that have been exposed to water-borne algal blooms, attacks the nervous system but does not affect the brain.
	www.aims.gov.au /news/pages/media-release-991222.html (700 words)

	Ciguatera and other Marine biotoxins \| 3 Shellfish-associated Biotoxins
		Saxitoxin is produced by Alexandrium (Gonyaulax) tamarense, Alexandrium catenella, Pyrodinium bahamense, Gymnodinium catenatum and Cochlodinium catenatum.
		For saxitoxins, for example, the limit is set at more than 500 cells of Pyrodinium bahamense per litre of sea water or more than 40 µg of saxitoxins per 100 gram of mollusc.
		For saxitoxin one mouse unit corresponds to 0.18 µg of saxitoxin.
	www.itg.be /itg/DistanceLearning/LectureNotesVandenEndenE/46_Marine_biotoxinsp3.htm (1263 words)

	FISH-SCI Archives -- March 2003 (#40)
		The reason we are interested in testing the striped burrfish for saxitoxin is more of a routine survey, not because it is being considered as a possible cause of mortality.
		Since that time we have routinely been screening all puffer fish species for saxitoxin statewide to obtain baseline data on the general distribution of this toxin.
		This is the first time this species has been reported to produce saxitoxin in the U.S. We have no evidence to suggest that Pyrodinium is currently blooming nor causing toxicity problems on the west coast.
	segate.sunet.se /cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0303&L=fish-sci&F=&S=&P=4598 (572 words)

	Fish and Wildlife Research Institute
		Although saxitoxin has been found in puffer fish in the Far East and the Philippines, this is the first report of saxitoxin in puffer fish in the United States.
		Saxitoxin, which more commonly accumulates in shellfish, can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) when toxic shellfish are consumed.
		Saxitoxin can be produced by some bacteria and cyanobacteria as well as by dinoflagellates.
	www.floridamarine.org /features/view_article.asp?id=18918 (2002 words)

	AIMS Arnat - Australian Research Network for Algal Toxins, Saxitoxins
		Saxitoxin and its naturally occurring analogues, are produced by both marine and freshwater microalgae.
		The name saxitoxin is derived from the mollusc in which it was first identified, Saxidomus giganteus.
		This polar nature of saxitoxin allows it to readily dissolve in water and lower alcohols but insoluble in organic solvents.
	www.aims.gov.au /arnat/arnat-0008.htm (509 words)

	Growfish - Gippsland Aquaculture Industry Network (GAIN)
		In an effort to safeguard the multi-million aquaculture industry, clams from the Indian River Lagoon are being regularly checked for a recently discovered natural toxin — and scientists say 18 months of tests have found the clams safe for human consumption.
		Poisonous saxitoxin has caused a ban on eating puffer fish caught in five counties that border the lagoon: Martin, St. Lucie,
		"(Saxitoxin) has been detected at very low levels, nowhere near the levels of public health concern — which are very conservative levels to protect public health."
	www.growfish.com.au /content.asp?ContentId=1795 (392 words)

	Catalyst: Killer Crab - ABC TV Science
		Saxitoxin can also cause problems elsewhere - they are produced by algal blooms which can kill livestock and people.
		But saxitoxin is the source of another concern - that one day it might be used as a chemical weapon.
		Saxitoxin was reputedly used by the CIA in the 1950s in their infamous suicide pills.
	www.abc.net.au /catalyst/stories/s665588.htm (1203 words)

	Saxitoxin
		Saxitoxin is a highly toxic natural chemical found in the phytoplankton that causes red tide.
		Saxitoxin exerts its toxic effect by interfering with the transmission of signals through the nervous system.
		Saxitoxin, the major component of PSP, is responsible for respiratory paralysis...
	www.health-nexus.com /saxitoxin.htm (235 words)

	Sensor makes marine poison glow - NIEHS Center Program
		CIA agents in the 1950s were rumoured to carry saxitoxin suicide capsules.
		Puffer fish make saxitoxin - earlier this year 13 people in Florida were poisoned when they ate locally caught puffer fish.
		Saxitoxin has two positively charged regions that are potential docking points for a crown ether.
	www.niehs.nih.gov /centers/2003News/news3.htm (338 words)

	Effects of Organic Antagonists of Ca2+, Na+, and K+ on Chemotaxis and Motility of Escherichia coli -- Tisa et al. 182 ...
		Saxitoxin is a specific Na channel blocker of action potentials in nerve and muscle of animals, although it is actually produced
		In each case, the concentration of saxitoxin in the pond of bacteria was the same as that in the capillary.
		Saxitoxin at 1 mM had no effect on cell viability (Table 1).
	jb.asm.org /cgi/content/full/182/17/4856 (3395 words)

	MRC - Algae Toxin connected to Puffer Fish Poisonings and Dolphin Deaths
		Scientists from the Florida Marine Research Institute believe that a toxin called saxitoxin was responsible for the poisoning of 19 people in Florida between January and April of this year after consuming puffer fish.
		The highest amount of saxitoxin was found in the southern puffer fish in the Titusville area.
		Researchers also believe that the presence of this saxitoxin in algae could be responsible for the unusual die-off of dolphins in the Indian River Lagoon in the past two years.
	www.mrcirl.org /marker/marker1704/0101.html (437 words)

	Yale Medicine-Archives
		“The object of Dr. Ritchie’s concern is a supply of the poison, saxitoxin, which the agency kept in violation of a Presidential order in 1969 to halt the development of biological and chemical weapons, and to destroy existing stockpiles.
		“Saxitoxin, which is derived from tissues of butter clams and other shellfish, was developed by the CIA for various possible covert activities.
		It did, however, account for the main defect in multiple sclerosis, which is the inability of nerves that have demyelinated to conduct nerve impulses.” Nerve conduction fails and paralysis ensues.
	info.med.yale.edu /external/pubs/ym_fw0001/archives.htm (515 words)

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