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	GEOL 308: Sea Level Change
		Sea level has changed throughout the Earth’s history mostly due to changing of the Earth’s climate over geologic time.
		The immediate result of sea level rise is beach erosion and the inundation of seawater into coastal cities.
		A desription of the techniques, including tidal gauges and satellite altimetry, used to measure long term sea level change is available from the Center for Space Research at the UT Austin.
	lava.tamu.edu /courses/geol308/sealevel.html (411 words)

	ScienceMaster - JumpStart - Sea Level
		Mountain glaciers are excellent monitors of climate change; the worldwide shrinkage of mountain glaciers is thought to be caused by a combination of a temperature increase from the Little Ice Age, which ended in the latter half of the 19th century, and increased greenhouse-gas emissions.
		During cold-climate intervals, known as glacial epochs or ice ages, sea level falls because of a shift in the global hydrologic cycle: water is evaporated from the oceans and stored on the continents as large ice sheets and expanded ice caps, ice fields, and mountain glaciers.
		Sea levels during several previous interglacials were about 3 to as much as 20 meters higher than current sea level.
	www.sciencemaster.com /jump/earth/sea_level.php (1001 words)

	sea level changes text patterns
		The ensuing sea-level curve is generally characterized by a gradual rise in sea level, although the exact character and the continuity of that rise continue to be debated.
		Following the idea of episodic change, Blanchon proposed that the rate of Holocene sea level rise could be hindcast from changes in coral type in reef cores and the thickness of branching- and massive-coral sections found in the cores.
		An alternative possibility is that the reefs formed on older terraces and that each reef represents the accretion of coral as sea level passed by a pre-existing notch in the otherwise smooth island slope.
	geology.uprm.edu /Morelock/GEOLOCN_/patterns.htm (3307 words)

	Sea Level Changes
		In the 60ies there was a vigorous debate whether sea level was oscillations and reached above the present level in Mid Holocene time (the Fairbridge, 1961, concept) or was smoothly and continuously rising through the Holocene (the Shepard, 1993, concept).
		Sea level changes from sites scattered all over the globe plotted against the present geoid position (with respect to the rotation ellipsoid) for 20 ka (blue), 10 ka (yellow) and Holocene maximum when above the present (violet).
		This may be associated with a general trans-polar VGP-shift at ~13,200 BP followed by a significant change in Earth's rotation which lead to a sudden northward displacement of the Gulf Steam so that a new biota invaded the coasts of NW Europe and Atlantic water penetrated all the way into the Barents Sea (Mörner, e.g.
	www.pog.nu /sea/07_research_topics/rt14.htm (883 words)

	ePIC: Changes in Sea Level
		Past changes in sea level From recent analyses, our conclusions are as follows: since the Last Glacial Maximum about 20 000 years ago, sea level has risen by over 120 m at locations far from present and former ice sheets, as a result of loss of mass from these ice sheets.
		Climate changes during the 20th century are estimated from modelling studies to have led to contributions of between Ð0.2 and 0.0 mm/yr from Antarctica (the results of increasing precipitation) and 0.0 to 0.1 mm/yr from Greenland (from changes in both precipitation and runoff).
		Changes in terrestrial storage of water over the period 1910 to 1990 are estimated to have contributed from Ð1.1 to +0.4 mm/yr of sea-level rise.
	www.awi-bremerhaven.de /Publications/Chu2001a_abstract.html (1612 words)

	Sea Level Changes And Ireland
		Relative sea level (RSL) refers to the net effect of these two sources of variation, and is the measure of most relevance in the context of this article.
		The natural pattern of RSL change is one of falling levels against coasts in parts of the north, as in the area of Malin Head, as the land there continues to lift in response to earlier ice melt and unloading.
		This geological norm of high global sea levels' underlines the need for future effective coastal management strategies, though an understanding of the causes for the reestablishment of high global sea levels will be of little comfort to cities and other inhabitants of lowland areas today.
	www.enfo.ie /leaflets/bs27.htm (2127 words)

	Regional Sea Level Changes Projected by AOM (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Sea level has been rising for the past century, and inhabitants of the Earth's coastal regions will want to understand and predict future sea level changes.
		Using observed levels of greenhouse gases between 1950 and 1990 and a compounded 0.5% annual increase in CO2 after 1990, model projections show that global sea level measured from 1950 will rise by 61 mm in the year 2000, by 212 mm in 2050, and by 408 mm in 2089.
		By 2089, two thirds of the global sea level rise will be due to thermal expansion and one third will be due to ocean mass changes.
	aom.giss.nasa.gov /PUB/sea2000.html (183 words)

	past changes in sea level (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Notice also that the sea level changes that we are concerned with due to global warming are very small compared to changes which have occurred due the various glacial episodes.
		Sea level changed radically during the Pleistocene period, and 18000yrs ago during the last ice age sea level was 100m below today's level.
		A graph to illustrate the steady rise of sea level during the Flandrian transgression, (Dyer, 1986).
	freespace.virgin.net /mark.davidson3/sea_level_rise/past.htm (304 words)

	Geoindicators: Relative sea level (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Though global fluctuations in sea level may result from the growth and melting of continental glaciers, and large-scale changes in the configuration of continental margins and ocean floors, there are many regional processes that result in rise or fall of RSL that affect one coastline and not another.
		Local changes may be caused by large engineering works nearby, such as river channelling or dam construction, that influence sediment delivery and deposition in deltaic areas.
		Low-lying islands and coastal cities are vulnerable to rising sea levels.
	www.gcrio.org /geo/sea.html (927 words)

	Sea Level, Ice, and Greenhouses -- FAQ
		This is well under the rates of sea level rise experienced during the end of the last ice age (around 20 mm/year), so is not ecologically unprecedented.
		The Filchner-Ronne (in the Weddell Sea) and the Ross Ice shelf (in the Ross Sea) act as buttresses to the West Antarctic ice sheet.
		Sea level during the last 17,000 years: Fairbanks, R. A 17,000 year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation.
	www.radix.net /~bobg/faqs/sea.level.faq.html (2898 words)

	Variations in Sea Level
		Tide staff at Solomons Island, MD Tide gauges around the Chesapeake Bay indicate that the relative sea level in the Bay is rising at twice the average global rate of 1.8 mm per year [Douglas, 1991].
		The overall global rise of sea level adds to the effect of land subsidence in the Chesapeake area to produce an unusually high rate of long-term local sea level rise relative to the global average.
		Changes in the elevation of the land on which the tide gauges rest would also appear as a changes in the relative sea level.
	www.ngs.noaa.gov /GRD/GPS/Projects/CB/SEALEVEL/sealevel.html (1465 words)

	A Primer on glacio-eustatic sea levels
		The hydrologic cycle is the constant circulation of water from the sea through the atmosphere, to the land, and its eventual return to the sea.
		Because of glacial fluctuations true, or eustatic, sea level (which those of us who live along oceanic coasts may think of as a constant, ignoring waves, tides, and storms) varies across spans of observation ranging from decades to hundreds of thousands of years.
		This variation, in turn, is superimposed on sea level fluctuations across millions of years caused by changes in the volume of the ocean basins.
	www.homepage.montana.edu /~geol445/hyperglac/eustasy1 (554 words)

	SEA LEVEL CHANGES: OBSERVATIONS VERSUS MODELS (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		This commission has presented an observationally based analysis of the present sea level changes and the changes to be expected in the next century.
		In the last 300 years, sea level has been oscillation close to the present with peak rates in the period 1890-1930.
		Therefore, observationally based predictions of future sea level in the year 2100 will give a value of +10 +10 cm (or +5 +15 cm), by this discarding model out-puts by IPCC as well as global loading models.
	gsa.confex.com /gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_54461.htm (453 words)

	sea level changes text eustatic change
		Whatever the actual age or number of meltwater pulses, the main point is that sudden changes in glacial volume have resulted in significant and rapid transients in sea level.
		All three elements (orbital eccentricity, its precession and the changing tilt of the earth) influence the distribution of solar radiation reaching the earth's atmosphere, acting to increase or diminish seasonal differences and, therefore, the tendency for glaciation.
		As the Atlantic Ocean continued to grow, changes in the rate of spreading and the volume of the mid-Atlantic ridge resulted in changes in the total volume of the ocean basins, thereby triggering changes in sea level.
	geology.uprm.edu /Morelock/GEOLOCN_/eustatic.htm (1754 words)

	LiveScience.com - Dramatic Sea-Level Changes
		Sea surface heights varied by as much as 98 feet (30 meters) within just a few thousand years, scientists report in the April 15 issue of the journal Science.
		Above, sea cliffs exposing the last interglacial coral deposits are visible at the northern tip of Barbados.
		That's too frequent to be explained by changes in the planet's orbit.
	www.livescience.com /imageoftheday/siod_050415.html (364 words)

	Changine Sea Level
		Sea level was considerably lower then than it is today.
		If the rate of sea floor spreading were to decrease, one would predict a lowering of sea level (True or False)
		As noted previously " we basically understand that it is the changing of sea level relative to the land and the increase and decrease in sand supply to the coast that cause the shoreline to retreat or advance over a period of about 50 years or more."
	www.uh.edu /~jbutler/physical/risingsealevel.html (888 words)

	Global and Regional Sea-Level Changes and the Hydrological Cycle
		Sea level and its spatial and temporal variability, therefore, may not only be important for understanding the potential impacts of climate change but also prove to be a key parameter of the Earth system.
		The changes in the sea level are compared with changes in sea surface temperature to decide whether the changes in sea level are related to changes in the heat content of the ocean.
		Sea level variation patterns under consideration are linear patterns possibly in combination with a sea level rise acceleration at the beginning or towards the end of the time series.
	gaim.unh.edu /Products/Reports/Report_8 (13736 words)

	Spaceflight Now \| Breaking News \| Satellites measure and monitor sea level changes
		For the first time, NASA has the tools and expertise to understand the rate at which sea level is changing, some of the mechanisms that drive those changes and the effects that sea level change may have worldwide.
		Although scientists have directly measured sea level since the early part of the 20th century, it was not known how many of the observed changes in sea level were real and how many were related to upward or downward movement of the land.
		With new satellite measurements, scientists are able to better predict the rate at which sea level is rising and the cause of that rise.
	www.spaceflightnow.com /news/n0507/07sealevel (894 words)

	Sea level changes at Port Stanley, Falkland Islands
		Time series of sea level change at Port Stanley present a rich spectrum of variability from seiches, tides, and storm surges through to the seasonal, interannual, and secular changes of interest to ocean circulation and climate change studies.
		The characteristics of seiches and of tidal, storm surge, and mean sea level variability are described, and the frequency of extreme sea level events is determined.
		Port Stanley sea level variability is shown to be “inverse barometer like” over a wide range of frequencies, although with a significant dependence on the local wind field and an intriguing association with the distant tropical Pacific wind field.
	www.agu.org /pubs/crossref/2005/2004JC002648.shtml (376 words)

	Welcome to the Caspian Sea Level Project Site
		The outflow is mainly by evaporation at the sea surface and to the KaraBogaz Gol.
		These data would indicate that Caspian Sea level could be a good proxy for historical changes in the NAO and might be used to calibrate Global Circulation Models for the Quaternary.
		Deposits of the maximal transgression form the highest level at the surface in the whole North Caspian basin, and there is evidence of the existence of an overflow to the Black sea at +50 m through the Kuma-Manysh depression north of the Caucasus (Menabde and Svitoch, 1990).
	www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl /project.html (1999 words)

	Sea-Level Changes
		Coastal erosion is caused by rising sea level, powerful ocean waves, large storms, and flooding.
		Inasmuch as paleo-environmental and historical data have clearly indicated the occurrence of sea-level changes in the past, new scientific information on the nature and causes of sea-level change- and the development of a quantitative predictive capability- are of utmost importance for the future.
		The mass-budget changes include water exchange from polar ice sheets and mountain glaciers to the ocean, atmospheric water vapor and land hydrological variations, and human effects such as water impoundment in artificial reservoirs and extraction of groundwater.
	solidearth.jpl.nasa.gov /PAGES/sea01.html (352 words)

	Changes in Sea Level
		During times of maximum glaciation large volumes of water were stored on the land as ice this meant that there was a eustatic fall in sea level.
		There was a decline of ice sheets and glaciers producing an isostatic uplift of the land leaving a negative change in the base level.
		Following the global rise in sea level and still occurring in several parts of the world today there was an isostatic uplift of land as the weight of the ice sheets decreased.
	www.revision-notes.co.uk /revision/705.html (647 words)

	Sea Level Change Resources
		At the same time, global sea levels are rising and this rise is expected to accelerate significantly during this Century due to anthropogenic global warming.
		Investment in sea defences is less than is required, and a failure to invest in defences will lead to continued (and increased) losses.
		The Flandrian is a period of time when sea levels have risen relative to the land, and therefore covered areas which were once above water.
	www.geographypages.co.uk /sealevel.htm (1155 words)

	Stephen Pekar's Current Research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Recently calibrated isotopic records, global sea level estimates, stratigraphic and biological data from Antarctica, and estimates in atmospheric CO2 provide a new comprehensive model of cryospheric and climate evolution between 34 and 17 Ma (Pekar et al., in prep.).
		Unlike non-calibrated isotopic records that appear to decouple with global sea level, Antarctic stratigraphic and CO2 records during the late Oligocene and the early Miocene (25-16 Ma), calibrated isotopic records are in good agreement with all of these records.
		We interpret that the changes observed in the isotopic and Mg/Ca ratio records are the result of both changes in the cryosphere and water-mass changes in the vicinity of Tasmania, the latter being due to the penetration of WSDW into the Southern Ocean.
	www.ldeo.columbia.edu /~pekar/research_c.html (4361 words)

	Freeman-Lynde GLY409/609 Sea Level
		the effects of sea level changes on the coastal zone and continental shelves is a complicated story
		Generally, transgressions are associated with rises in eustatic sea level, while regressions are associated with drops in eustatic sea level
		O variation through time is thus a proxy for the amount of ice stored on the continents and for sea level (see section II.
	www.arches.uga.edu /~rfreeman/'GLY409_'9_Sea_level.html (908 words)

	Corals reveal rapid sea level changes - earth - 23 April 2005 - New Scientist (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		The prevailing view that sea level only changes gradually over tens of thousands of years as ice sheets wax and wane is being challenged
		THE prevailing view that sea level only changes gradually over tens of thousands of years as ice sheets wax and wane is being challenged, with potentially profound implications for how oceans will respond to climate change.
		The amount of uranium in dead corals steadily declines as it decays into thorium, so the ratio of these radioactive isotopes is like a clock that starts ticking the moment the coral dies: the higher the ratio of uranium to thorium, the younger the coral.
	www.newscientist.com /article.ns?id=mg18624965.000 (301 words)

	Marine Climate and Relative Sea Level Across Central Beringia
		During the last glacial maximum sea level was lowered by ~125m.The size of Beringia increased dramatically, and the flow of fresher, nutrient rich Pacific water into the Chukchi Sea was cut off due to the resulting emergence of the Bering Strait.
		This lack of understanding is partly due to the fact that relative sea level in Beringia is likely to have differed from eustatic sea level as a result of tectonic and possible glacio-eustatic effects.
		Yet the history of these variables in the Bering and the Chukchi Seas is not known well enough to integrate with the evidence for terrestrial climate change.
	www.geo.umass.edu /beringia/index.html (380 words)

	Holocene sea-level change (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Saltmarshes in New England and Atlantic Canada contain peat sequences in which assemblages of fossil foraminifera are preserved that give a detailed picture of sea-level changes during the past millennia.
		The ability of foraminifera to record sea-level changes is due to their vertical zonation on the surface of saltmarshes and their tolerance to withstand varying degrees of subaerial exposure.
		Gehrels, W.R., Belknap, D.F., Pearce, B.R., and Gong, B. (1995) Modeling the contribution of M2 tidal amplification to the Holocene rise of mean high water in the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy.
	www.geog.plym.ac.uk /research/quatern/quatholo.htm (446 words)

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