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Topic: Solid fuel

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	Solid Fuel Association - coal, coke and smokeless fuels
		is funded by solid fuel producers and distributors and was established to encourage greater awareness of the benefits of domestic solid fuel heating among the general public.
		Solid fuel is an efficient and economical method of heating your home 24 hours a day.
		Medical research has also shown that solid fuel heating can reduce the risk of hay fever, asthma and eczema.Homes with solid fuel heating are better ventilated than those with other forms of heating; the very use of a chimney will induce ventilation into a home drawing in fresh air and removing the 'polluted' air.
	www.solidfuel.co.uk (2876 words)

	Solid-fuel rocket - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		A solid rocket or a solid fuel rocket is a rocket with a motor that uses solid propellants (fuel/oxidizer).
		Solid fuel grains are usually molded from a thermoset elastomer, fuel, oxidizer and catalyst.
		Solid fuel rockets can be bought for use in model rocketry; they are normally small cylinders of fuel with an integral nozzle and a small charge that is set off when the fuel is exhausted.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Solid_rocket (1137 words)

	HFCIT Fuel Cells: Types of Fuel Cells (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels.
		Direct methanol fuel cell technology is relatively new compared to that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, and DMFC research and development are roughly 3-4 years behind that for other fuel cell types.
		The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO In fact, even the small amount of CO in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell.
	www.eere.energy.gov /hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html (1811 words)

	Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
		In essence fuel cells (SOFC included) are similar to batteries except that where batteries run down and become depleted, fuel cells are continually replenished with fuel and are able to provide a continuous supply of electric power.
		Each cell is composed of an anode and a cathode separated by a solid impermeable electrolyte, which during operation conducts oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode where they react chemically with the fuel.
		Within the SOFC it is important that the fuel and air streams are kept separate, and that a thermal balance should be maintained to ensure that the temperature of operation remains within an acceptable range.
	www.azom.com /details.asp?ArticleID=919&head=Solid+Oxide+Fuel+Cells (1426 words)

	Solid Fuel Rockets- Fuel Types
		Eventually, the fuel in a solid rocket begins to collapse and become inconsistent, due to the binder breaking down and the fuel grains separating.
		This is dependent on the composition of the fuel and its consistency.
		The fuels must not be set off by bumping or jarring which often occurs in combat and must store for long periods of time (often in adverse conditions) before use.
	www.sover.net /~sbjohn/chemistry/chemx/fuels.html (605 words)

	Almost there: a commercially viable fuel cell
		To increase voltage output, several fuel cells are stacked together, a configuration called a fuel cell stack that forms the heart of a clean power generator.
		This is an ideal fuel cell application, because while both large gas turbines and the best fuel cell boast an energy conversion efficiency rate of 50 percent, gas turbines become less efficient as they become smaller.
		Fuel cell generators, however, retain their 50 percent efficiency rating regardless of size, meaning they're ideally suited for small-scale work like distributed and portable power generation.
	www.lbl.gov /Science-Articles/Archive/MSD-fuel-cells.html (1119 words)

	DoD Fuel Cell - Fuel Cell Descriptions
		At that temperature, internal reforming of carbonaceous fuels should be possible, and the waste heat from such a device would be easily utilized by conventional thermal electricity generating plants to yield excellent fuel efficiency.
		The Westinghouse cell design constructs the fuel cell around a porous zirconia support tube through which air is supplied to the cathode which is deposited on the outside of the tube.
		The electrons pass outside the fuel cell, through the load, and back to the cathode where oxygen from air receives the electrons and is converted into oxide ions which are injected into the electrolyte.
	dodfuelcell.cecer.army.mil /solidoxide.html (653 words)

	Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
		A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy in fuels (such as hydrogen, methane, butane or even gasoline and diesel) into electrical energy by exploiting the natural tendency of oxygen and hydrogen to react.
		The fuel cell needs to run at high temperatures in order to achieve sufficiently high current densities and power output; operation at up to 1000 C is possible using the most common electrolyte material, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).
		Moreover, the use of fuel cells could significantly reduce deployment costs: 70% by weight of the material that the military moves is nothing but fuel [SECA].
	www.csa.com /discoveryguides/fuecel/overview.php (3189 words)

	DOE - Fossil Energy: Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology (Site not responding. Last check: )
		When a fuel gas containing hydrogen is passed over the outside of the tube in contact with the "fuel electrode" (the anode), the oxygen ions migrate through the crystal lattice to oxidize the fuel.
		The fuel-to-electricity efficiencies of solid oxide fuel cells are expected to be around 50 percent.
		One company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation continued to develop tubular solid oxide fuel cells, and in 1962 one of the first federal research contracts by the newly-formed Office of Coal Research in the Department of the Interior was granted to Westinghouse to study a fuel cell using zirconium oxide and calcium oxide.
	www.fossil.energy.gov /programs/powersystems/fuelcells/fuelcells_solidoxide.html (859 words)

	St. Louis City Revised Code Chapter 8.86: SOLID FUEL
		No person shall produce, import or haul solid fuel, nor store any solid fuel for immediate or future hauling for use in the City, without first obtaining a solid fuel permit so to do, and all permits shall be for the period ending on the thirty-first day of March next after their issuance.
		Vehicles used for hauling solid fuel must be registered and described in the Division of Smoke Regulation by a solid fuel permittee, as a vehicle owned or exclusively controlled by such permittee.
		If a permittee wishes to purchase solid fuel from a source of supply not given on the list submitted at the time the application for permit is made, the commissioner of smoke regulation shall be notified.
	www.slpl.lib.mo.us /cco/code/data/t0886.htm (1536 words)

	Zen Solid Fuel Stoves - Solid Fuel Burners
		This fuel is generally advertised as a "safe, clean burning fuel, easy to ignite, smokeless, odorless and non-toxic." All produce an odor, and are not always easy to ignite.
		Solid alcohol fuel is generally considered safer to use than liquid alcohol as it has much less of a spill hazard potential.
		Although this fuel works rather nicely and is easy to find in Japan, it tends to dry out rather rapidly over time and is not a good choice if you don't plan on using it within a month time.
	zenstoves.net /SolidFuelBurner.htm (2286 words)

	St. Louis City Revised Code Chapter 9.04: SOLID FUEL
		When fuel wood is sold, it shall be accompanied by a bill of sale bearing the name and address of the seller, the name and address of the purchaser, and the quantity of wood contained in the delivery in terms of cords or fractional parts thereof.
		When the reweighing is done on the scale on which the load of solid fuel was originally weighed, the tolerance on the net weight shall be two pounds per thousand pounds with a maximum tolerance of sixty pounds for one load, regardless of the size of the load weighed.
		Dealers in solid fuel shall be permitted to charge and receive a fee of four dollars or any less sum they may see fit to charge on any load of solid fuel weighed on their scales, except solid fuel in quantities of less than one thousand pounds.
	www.slpl.lib.mo.us /cco/code/data/t0904.htm (1017 words)

	Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
		A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction.
		One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollution—much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water.
		But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.
	www.iit.edu /~smart/garrear/fuelcells.htm (1495 words)

	Space and its Exploration: How a Solid Propellant Rocket Works (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Function: A solid propellant is a monopropellant fuel-a single mixture of several chemicals (the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent or fuel).
		This fuel, as implied, is in its solid state and has a preformed or molded shape.
		Once the chemistry behind rocket fuels (fuels provide their own "air" to burn) was discovered, scientists sought the evermore-powerful fuel, constantly approaching new limits.
	adc.gsfc.nasa.gov /adc/education/space_ex/solid.html (894 words)

	Collecting the History of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
		A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) uses a hard ceramic electrolyte instead of a liquid and operates at temperatures up to 1,000 degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F).
		When a fuel gas containing hydrogen is passed over the anode, a flow of negatively charged oxygen ions moves across the electrolyte to oxidize the fuel.
		Like molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide cells require high operating temperatures, and their most common application is in large, stationary power plants.
	americanhistory.si.edu /fuelcells/so/sofcmain.htm (744 words)

	The Onix Corporation - Manufacturers of Solid Fuel Burners, Solid Fuel Burner and Alternative Fuel Systems
		There are over 100 Solid Fuel Burners presently in operation providing millions of Btu's for a fraction of the previous cost.
		The WEBB Series Solid Fuel Burner is operated by the method of "cyclonic combustion." In cyclonic combustion, the burning occurs at a positive pressure, rather than the slight negative pressure associated with most suspension fired wood systems.
		These solid products of combustion (to small to be visible) are entrained into the air stream and then enter the boiler or other vessel, where they are removed as flyash by a particulate control system.
	www.theonixcorp.com /combustion.html (497 words)

	IHS Energy - Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Developers Claim 50% Efficiency
		Two Northwestern University researchers developed a new solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that converts a liquid transportation fuel - iso-octane, a high-purity compound similar to gasoline - into hydrogen which is then used by the fuel cell to produce energy.
		Current hydrogen fuel cells that require hydrogen plants and new infrastructure have been calculated to have a 29% fuel efficiency while commercial gas/electric hybrid vehicles already have achieved 32%.
		The key to the new fuel cell is a special thin-film catalyst layer through which the hydrocarbon fuel flows toward the anode.
	petrochemical.ihs.com /news-05Q2/solid-oxide-fuel-cell-efficiency.jsp (994 words)

	JEA News - First Delivery of Solid Fuel
		Jacksonville - JEA is scheduled to accept its first shipment of solid fuel for the two repowered units at the Northside Generating Station on Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2001.
		Utilizing solid fuels such as coal or petroleum coke to generate electricity further reduces Jacksonville's need for foreign oil.
		Fuel will travel through conveyors to the fuel storage domes where it will be stacked and stored.
	www.jea.com /about/news/stories/firstfuel.asp (497 words)

	Use of Wood-Burning Stoves and Other Solid Fuel-Burning Heating Appliances - Continue 2/3
		Solid fuel burning appliances must be installed where there is sufficient air to properly support safe, efficient combustion of the solid fuel. The appliance should not be installed where flammable vapors or dust or combustible fibers would be expected.
		Solid fuel-burning appliances produce very hot exhaust gases and noxious products of combustion. It is imperative that these appliances be properly vented to the outside of the building.
		In general, the solid fuel-burning appliance venting system must be appropriate for the specific appliance being vented (properly sized, properly supported and made of the appropriate metal material for the fuel being burned) and be properly isolated from any combustible building structure or draperies and combustible finishes.
	www.mass.gov /?pageID=eopsterminal&L=4&L0=Home&L1=Consumer+Protection+%26+Business+Licensing&L2=License+Type+by+Business+Area&L3=Home+Improvement+Contractor&sid=Eeops&b=terminalcontent&f=dps_bbrs_feature_heating_nov06_1&csid=Eeops (778 words)

	Types - Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
		The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is currently the highest-temperature fuel cell in development and can be operated over a wide temperature range from 600ºC—1000ºC allowing a number of fuels to be used.
		As a solid electrolyte, it is impervious to gas cross-over from one electrode to another when liquid electrolytes usually consist of the electrolyte contained in some porous supporting structure.
		Combining a high-temperature fuel cell with a turbine into a hybrid fuel cell further increases the overall efficiency of generating electricity with a potential of an efficiency of more than 70%.
	www.fctec.com /fctec_types_sofc.asp (357 words)

	Outdoor Solid Fuel
		An outdoor solid fuel combustion appliance is a separate building that is used to heat a main dwelling.
		Notwithstanding the provision of By-law 01-31 Section 3.(i), the minimum distance of the outdoor solid fuel combustion appliances (woodburning furnace) from the east property line may be reduced from 46 m (150 ft.) to 16 m (54 ft.).
		for outdoor solid fuel combustion appliances (woodburning furnace) may be reduced to 1.65 ac., the minimum distance of the outdoor solid fuel combustion appliances from the north lot line may be reduced from 150 ft. to 55 ft., and the setback from the road may be reduced from 150 ft. to 80.
	www.elizabethtown-kitley.on.ca /outdoorsolidfuel.htm (1938 words)

	Solid fuel rockets (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Solid rocket fuel implies the fuel is solid form.
		The propellant mixture in each SRB motor consists of an ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer, 69.6 percent by weight), aluminum (fuel, 16 percent), iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4 percent), a polymer (a binder that holds the mixture together, 12.04 percent), and an epoxy curing agent (1.96 percent).
		The gas atoms are initially at rest in the solid (more or less), and then the molecular bonds are disrupted and the chemical energy goes into heating up the gas (several thousand K).
	www.physicsforums.com /showthread.php?p=785086 (848 words)

	NETL: Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA)
		The Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA) was initiated in the fall of 1999 bringing together government, industry, and the scientific community to promote the development of environmentally friendly solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) for a variety of energy needs.
		Fuel utilization is the fraction of fuel entering the cell that reacts electrochemically to produce electric power, and it relates directly to the efficiency of a fuel cell and its associated lack of emissions.
		High fuel utilization is a key early performance milestone for reaching the cost goal of $400 per kilowatt and the system net-electrical efficiency goal of 40-60% by 2010.
	www.netl.doe.gov /technologies/coalpower/fuelcells/seca (710 words)

	Solid-oxide fuel cell - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Solid oxide fuel cells, or SOFC, are intended mainly for stationary applications with an output from 1 kW to 2MW.
		Solid oxide fuel cells have so far been operated on methane, propane, butane, fermentation gas, gasified biomass and paint fumes.
		A solid oxide fuel cell is made up of four layers, three of which are ceramics (hence the name).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Solid-oxide_fuel_cell (1159 words)

	Fuel Cell Today - Delphi Reaches Development Milestone for Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Similarly, heavy-duty trucks will be able to utilize SOFC auxiliary power systems for both heat and electrical power when parked, to save 85 percent of the fuel that today they consume when idling their main engine, and likewise reduce idling emissions.
		For the United States in total, extended idling of truck engines today consumes around a billion gallons of fuel annually, so the national potential for saving fuel and reducing emissions is significant.
		This includes natural gas and conventional petroleum-based fuels like low-sulfur gasoline, diesel and propane; high-sulfur military fuels like JP-8 and jet fuel; low-CO2 renewable fuels from biomass like ethanol, methanol and bio-diesel; synthetic liquid fuels from coal and natural gas; and non-hydrocarbon fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia.
	www.fuelcelltoday.com /FuelCellToday/IndustryInformation/IndustryInformationExternal/NewsDisplayArticle/0,1602,7806,00.html (1620 words)

	The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (Site not responding. Last check: )
		One type of solid oxide fuel cell uses an array of meter-long tubes.
		The solid oxide fuel cell promises to be extremely useful in large, high-power applications such as full-scale industrial stations and large-scale electricity-generating stations.
		A solid oxide fuel cell system usually utilizes a hard ceramic material instead of a liquid electrolyte.
	chemelab.ucsd.edu /fuelcell/soxide.htm (108 words)

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