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	Sound Localization
		Sound localization in humans and animals provides an existence proof of the capabilities of binaural systems, and research on the subject offers insight into which principles may be useful to incorporate in a machine implementation.
		The fundamental principles behind sound localization behavior research involve the relationship between the physics of a sound arriving at the eardrum and the geometry of the head.
		Thus the function of sound localization in the brain appears not to merely choose the direction of the loudest sound, but to create a map of sound sensations in space which may be related to other sensing modalities.
	www.ise.ncsu.edu /kay/msf/sound.htm (4493 words)

	Sound localization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Sound localization is a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound or the methods in acoustical engineering to simulate the placement of an auditory cue in a virtual 3D space (see binaural recording).
		The most significant filtering cue for biological sound localization is the pinna notch, a notch filtering effect resulting from destructive interference of waves reflected from the outer ear.
		Bats and barn owls are paragons of monaural localization in the animal kingdom, and have thus become model organisms.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Sound_localization (832 words)

	Sound Localization and Applications (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		Sound localization can help hunters know where their prey is hiding, or it can let someone know without looking that a cat is up in the tree rather than behind it.
		Sound frequency, movement parallax, reflection, and sound level are four of the distance cues used by the ear.
		Sound localization is not nearly as effective when using only one ear, because it does not have another to compare the information.
	hubel.sfasu.edu /courseinfo/SL03/sound_loc.htm (1874 words)

	James Rowland Angell: A Preliminary Study of the Significance of Partial Tones in the Localization of Sound (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		So long ago as 1875 Lord Rayleigh had made observations upon the localization of tuning-fork tones, which led him to surmise that differences in the quality and timbre of sounds, as heard by the two ears, were of quite as much significance for localization, as the mere differences in the intensity of the fundamental tone.
		The sounds employed were as follows: from (1) a tuning-fork of 1,000 vs.; (2) a stopped pipe of 768 vs.; (3) a reed pipe of 768 vs.; (4) a bell with a fundamental tone of approximately 2,048 vs.; and (5) a noise made by a telegraphic sounder.
		These statements concerning localization as a function of tonal complexity must not be understood as meaning that we are reflectively conscious of this local sign of direction involved in the changing quality, or timbre, of the tones.
	spartan.ac.brocku.ca /~lward/Angell/Angell_1903b.html (4226 words)

	Chapter II (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		Sound localization is primarily achieved with the ears.
		The intensity of the primary sound relative to its reverberation is higher for nearer sound events.
		If the sound source is distant, most of the reverberation is local and comes from the same direction as the source because, in the imaginary environment, the source is closer to reflectors in that direction.
	jade.ccccd.edu /cmorgan/diffuser/chap2.html (2251 words)

	SSSound - 3 Sound Localization
		Localization cues at low frequencies are given by interaural phase differences, where the phase difference of the signals heard at the two ears is an indication of the location of the sound source.
		The second method of sound localization was used, that is the delivery of localization cues using the spatial distribution of speakers.
		The second is for every sound source and speaker, to calculate an FIR filter representing the delay of the virtual sources that are needed to be projected from that speaker.
	xenia.media.mit.edu /~araz/sss/Sound_Localization.html (2979 words)

	Physics Today On The Web - Cover Story
		The sound localization facility at Wright Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, is a geodesic sphere, nearly 5 m in diameter, housing an array of 277 loudspeakers.
		Fortunately, most sounds of the everyday world are broadband and relatively benign in their spectral variation, so that listeners can both localize the source and identify it on the basis of the spectrum.
		Just a decade ago, it was thought that much of sound localization in general, and precedence in particular, might be a direct result of interaction at early stages of the binaural system, as in the superior olive.
	www.aip.org /pt/nov99/locsound.html (5002 words)

	monaural hearing and sound localization (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		Second, the mass of the head causes the incoming sound to lose intensity as it passes from one side of the head to the ear on the opposite side.
		Force a sound wave to act upon itself through reflection or the addition of other sound waves and the spectral frequency of which it originally was composed is altered.
		Auditory localization, is one of the more vulnerable sensory experiences in that over half of the auditory image is based on the relativity of sounds as they travel through the auditory pathway, binaurally (IIDs and ITDs) or monaurally (through referential analysis) (Middlebrooks and Green, 1991; Wightman and Kistler, 1997).
	hubel.sfasu.edu /courseinfo/SL99/monaural.html (1742 words)

	Spatial Audio Reproduction: Toward Individualized Binaural Sound (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		The perceptual cues for sound localization include the amplitude of the sound at each ear, the arrival time at each ear, and the spectrum of the sound, that is, the relative amplitude of the sound at different frequencies.
		The spectrum of a sound is modified by interactions between sound waves and the torso, head, and external ear (pinna).
		The sounds are shifted to the side as a result of the dominance of low-frequency time-delay cues in lateral localization; the cross-talk cancellation works effectively at low frequencies to provide this cue.
	www.nae.edu /NAE/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/MKEZ-695TMR?OpenDocument (2653 words)

	Sound Localization Experiments
		The sound localization experiment is designed to provide some insight in to how the brain detects and processes sound location information.
		First, sound localization is made possible by the interaural difference in the time-of-arrival (Delta T) of a sound wave.
		This high frequency sound wave has a tendency to be blocked by the head when a signal is located off center.
	www.usd.edu /coglab/localize.html (565 words)

	Localization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Often, localization is the adaptation of an object to a locality.
		In mathematics, localization is a certain technique in abstract algebra; see also localization of a module, localization of a category.
		In condensed matter physics, localization is the spatial confinement of particles in a structure.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Localization (386 words)

	[No title]
		Human listeners are able to localize the sources of sound with good accuracy over almost all of the 4 pi radians of angular space.
		Traditionally, the psychoacoustical study of localization has emphasized the way that listeners use the differences in signal intensity at the two ears and the differences in signal arrival time at the two ears to localize sources.
		More than that, listeners are capable of localizing sources in rooms where the acoustical reflections from the walls (coming in from random angles) have greater power than the sound directly from the source.
	www.pa.msu.edu /acoustics/loc.htm (812 words)

	The Effects of Hearing Protection on the Localization of Sound
		The dominant cues for sound localization in the horizontal plane are the differences in the arrival time and intensity of the sound between the two ears, neither of which should be disturbed by wearing HPDs.
		The transformation of the incident sound wave by its interaction with the pinnae, or outer ear, which produces different spectral patterns for sources in the front and rear hemispheres, specifies the front/back component of a sound's location.
		The results show minor increases in horizontal localization error (about 5°) and an increase in the number of front-back confusions—from about 9% in the unoccluded condition to about 33% in either of the HPD conditions, which is consistent with the work of Vause and Grantham.
	www.afrlhorizons.com /Briefs/Jun02/HE0201.html (1424 words)

	A Brain Map of Auditory Space
		The ability to identify where sounds are coming from based on auditory cues alone is common to all hearing creatures, but owls—especially barn owls—excel at the task.
		As the speaker moved, imitating sounds the owl would hear in the wild, the investigators recorded the firing of neurons in the vicinity of the electrodes.
		Astonishingly, the cells were organized in a precise topographic array, similar to maps of cells in the visual cortex of the brain.
	www.hhmi.org /senses/c/c210.htm (500 words)

	Exhibit Cross Reference - Sound Localization (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		Sound coming into the pinnae from an angle above the head, for instance, is filtered differently from sound coming from an angle below the head.
		Locating a sound source in 3D space is a critical skill for many animals, both in avoiding danger or finding food.
		To zero in a sounds, the owls have asymmetrical ear openings: the left opening is higher in the head than the right.
	www.exploratorium.edu /xref/exhibits/sound_localization.html (223 words)

	Physically Based Sound
		Its interesting to note that this is the major reason for the evolution of sound perception in mammals since sound is indispensible when a prey/predator is outside the visual range.
		The impinging sound waves are modified by the head in a frequency and direction dependent way, and additional complex filtering is performed by the external ears.
		AIBO must navigate around obstacles and walk in the general direction where the sound is coming from, even though the goal is not visible, until it catches sight of the goal.
	www.cs.unc.edu /~nikunj/comp290-058/project.html (855 words)

	Training improves sound localization in ferrets
		The brain processes spatial cues in the sound waves that enter each ear to localize sound and interprets sound on the horizontal plane by using disparities in how the sound reaches each ear, called interaural time differences and interaural level differences.
		By three weeks, the animals localized sound coming from the right side about as well as they had before the ear was plugged.
		Then, by training another group of ferrets to localize both auditory and visual stimuli before inserting the earplug, the authors show that sound localization depends "exclusively on auditory training" and does not involve "a visual recalibration of auditory space." Furthermore, adaptation did not depend on error feedback, since rewards were not based on performance.
	www.eurekalert.org /pub_releases/2006-03/plos-tis030106.php (816 words)

	Auditory Localization in the Near-Field
		In general, the sound arriving at the ear further from the source is attenuated and delayed relative to the sound arriving at the ear closer to the source.
		The spectral shaping of the localization cues helps differentiate between source locations that are equally distant from both ears (the so-called "cones of confusion"), including sound sources in the median plane.
		Finally, note that a model of near-field localization based on interaural differences for a perfectly spherical head predicts that humans will be unable to identify the distance of a sound source in the median plane without a priori information about the signal.
	www.icad.org /websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD96/proc96/brungart.htm (2026 words)

	Effects of Altering Spectral Cues in Infancy on Horizontal and Vertical Sound Localization by Adult Ferrets -- Parsons ...
		A general improvement in the localization accuracy of both groups is shown by the decreasing size of the error plots.
		Blauert, J. Sound localization in the median plane.
		Huang, A. and May, B. Spectral cues for sound localization in cats: effects of frequency domain on minimum audible angles in the median and horizontal planes.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/82/5/2294 (9760 words)

	Representation of sound localization cues in the auditory thalamus of the barn owl -- Proctor and Konishi 94 (19): ...
		Representation of sound localization cues in the auditory thalamus of the barn owl -- Proctor and Konishi 94 (19): 10421 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
		Representation of sound localization cues in the auditory thalamus of the barn owl
		are used by the barn owl for sound localization (26, 27).
	www.pnas.org /cgi/content/full/94/19/10421 (3280 words)

	Basic Studies of Human Sound Localization (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		For many organisms sound localization is a matter of survival.
		Extensive research suggests that the apparent position of a sound is determined by three primary acoustical cues: interaural time differences, interaural level differences, and pinna filtering effects.
		Neural network models are attractive since training and learning, which are thought to be important in human sound localization, are explicitly incorporated in the models.
	www.waisman.wisc.edu:8000 /hdrl/neuro_nih.htm (433 words)

	Plasticity in human sound localization induced by compressed spatial vision - Nature Neuroscience (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-04)
		This induced a corresponding compression of auditory localization that was most pronounced for azimuth (minimal for elevation) and was restricted to the visual field of the lenses.
		Sound localization was also affected outside the field of visual−auditory interaction (shifted centrally, not compressed).
		Findings are consistent with a model in which the central processing of sound location is encoded by recruitment rather than by a place code.
	www.nature.com /neurolink/v6/n2/abs/nn999.html (259 words)

	Relearning sound localization with new ears
		Because the inner ear is not organized spatially, sound localization relies on the neural processing of implicit acoustic cues.
		Although localization of sound elevation was dramatically degraded immediately after the modification, accurate performance was steadily reacquired.
		Interestingly, learning the new spectral cues did not interfere with the neural representation of the original cues, as subjects could localize sounds with both normal and modified pinnae.
	www.cns.nyu.edu /events/earclub/artfiles/mal1.html (181 words)

	Behavioral Studies of Sound Localization in the Cat -- Populin and Yin 18 (6): 2147 -- Journal of Neuroscience
		to localize transient stimuli is inferior to that of the owl (Knudsen
		Overall localization accuracy of narrow-band stimuli was affected compared with broad-band stimuli.
		cues used in the localization of sound sources on the median plane.
	www.jneurosci.org /cgi/content/full/18/6/2147 (7149 words)

	Sound localization in callosal agenesis and early callosotomy subjects: brain reorganization and/or compensatory ...
		Sound localization in callosal agenesis and early callosotomy subjects: brain reorganization and/or compensatory strategies -- Lessard et al.
		Sound localization in callosal agenesis and early callosotomy subjects: brain reorganization and/or compensatory strategies
		tested: (i) localization of a stationary sound source; and (ii)
	brain.oxfordjournals.org /cgi/content/abstract/125/5/1039 (366 words)

	QSound's Patents
		Apparatus for creating 3D audio imaging over headphones using binaural synthesis including elevation
		Teleconferencing method and apparatus with three-dimensional sound positioning
		Apparatus of Crossfading out of the Head Sound Locations
	www.qsound.com /2002/technology/main3.asp (86 words)

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