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	Soviet atomic bomb project - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Soviet nuclear research was not far behind Western scientists: Yakov Frenkel did the first theoretical work on fission in the Soviet Union in 1940, and Georgii Flerov and Lev Rusinov concluded that 3±1 neutrons were emitted per fission only days after similar conclusions had been reached by the team of Frederic Joliot-Curie.
		The single largest problem during the early Soviet project was the procurement of uranium ore, as it had no known domestic sources at the beginning of the project.
		The first Soviet nuclear reactor was fueled using uranium confiscated from the remains of the German atomic bomb project.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project (1343 words)

	What Sudoplatov failed to mention: British geopolitics and the atom bomb
		The assumption that a crash project to develop an atomic bomb was imposed upon the Allies by the urgency of ensuring that Hitler would not have this terror weapon while the Allies had no credible counterthreat, is an accepted part of the mythology surrounding the Second World War.
		When Sudoplatov ascribes the success of the Soviet nuclear program to the secrets obtained by spies under his control, he is denying the actual achievements of the Soviet scientists, despite the miserable conditions under which they were forced to work--the terrible wartime conditions and the brutality of the communist regime.
		The first working atomic reactor in Europe was built by the Soviets in 1946; the first hydrogen bomb in the world was produced by the Soviets in 1953; and the first industrial atomic power station in the world to function, was opened by the Soviets in 1954.
	members.tripod.com /~AMERICAN_ALMANAC/cawbomb.htm (6444 words)

	Manhattan Project - Knowmore
		The project was spurred by the MAUD Committee reporting that a weapon based on nuclear fission was possible and that Nazi Germany was also investigating such weapons of its own.
		One project produced a uranium bomb and the other route produced two plutonium bombs, all of which were successfully detonated in 1945.
		The first major scientific hurdle of the project was solved on December 2, 1942 beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, where a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor named Chicago Pile-1.
	www.knowmore.org /index.php/Manhattan_Project (4556 words)

	From Graduate Studies to a Bomb Design (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		I was struck by the report of Truman’s announcement: on 6 August 1945 at 8 a.m.
		an atomic bomb of the enormous destructive power of 20 thousand tons of TNT was dropped on Hiroshima.
		The all-out research and industrial effort, directed by physicist Igor Kurchatov and assisted by atomic espionage, would be completed with the first Soviet nuclear test on 29 August 1949.
	www.aip.org /history/sakharov/gradstud.htm (488 words)

	Atomic Bomb debate
		You are a scientist in the Manhattan Project.
		If it is decided that the bomb must be used, you favor a demonstration of the bomb’s effect before it is dropped on Japanese cities.
		Part of the motivation to use the bomb is to keep the Soviet divisions out of Manchuria by ending the war quickly.
	stutzfamily.com /mrstutz/ww2/abombscientist.html (870 words)

	The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program
		The most significant early work on fission in the Soviet Union was performed by Yakov Zel'dovich and Yuli Khariton who published a series of papers in 1939-41 that laid the groundwork for later Soviet atomic weapons development.
		The crash-program to produce an atomic bomb a quickly as possible had created a very inefficient and hazardous production system, and tremendous effort was required to rationalize the program and place it on a firmer basis.
		The bomb's yield was reduced from its design yield for the test by about half by replacing part of the Li-6 D fusion fuel with "a passive material" (probably ordinary lithium hydride).
	nuclearweaponarchive.org /Russia/Sovwpnprog.html (2117 words)

	Manhattan Project
		Some scientists argued that the technical problems involved in producing such a bomb were too difficult to overcome, but the one thing they were agreed upon was that if such a weapon was developed, it would give the country that possessed it the power to flmail the rest of the world.
		In February 1943, SOE saboteurs successfully planted a bomb in the Rjukan nitrates factory in Norway.
		My idea of an approach to the Soviets would be a direct proposal after discussion with the British that we would be prepared in effect to enter an agreement with the Russians, the general purpose of which would be to control and limit the use of the atomic bomb as an instrument of war.
	www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk /USAmanhattan.htm (3777 words)

	The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba
		Among these were Soviet Minister of Medium Machine Building Efim Slavsky and Marshal of the Soviet Union Kirill Moskalenko, deputies to the 22nd Congress of the CPSU then in session, who had arrived by plane on the day of the test to observe the explosion.
		The bomb was partially recessed in the plane, but not enclosed, with over half of it protruding in flight [Adamsky and Smirnov 1998].
		This suggests that the bomb was rigged with a proximity fuze (which could either be a timer, or a barostatic or radar altimeter) that would detonate it close to the ground (the pictures of the bomb do show a nose mounted probes that have been identified as a radar altimeter [Janes Defense Weekly 1992]).
	nuclearweaponarchive.org /Russia/TsarBomba.html (4974 words)

	Decision to Drop atomic bomb
		The decision to use atomic weapons against Japan emerged at the end of this conference.
		The atomic bomb Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
		A committee of scientific, corporate, military and government leaders was formed by Secretary of War Stimson to formulate policy on "the whole field of atomic energy, in its political, military and scientific aspects." The committee's major function was to determine if the bomb should be used with or without warning.
	www.atomicmuseum.com /tour/decision.cfm (437 words)

	Atomic Bomb: (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		Hydrogen bombs work by utilizing the Teller-Ulam design, in which a fission bomb is detonated in a specially manufactured compartment adjacent to a fusion fuel.
		For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb which increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a hydrogen bomb.
		Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a nuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of prompt radiation; these could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact.
	www.winelib.com /wiki/Atomic_Bomb (2709 words)

	Andrei Sakharov - Armeniapedia.org (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		In mid-1948 he became part of the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov.
		The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949.
		He also proposed an idea for a controlled fusion reactor, the tokamak, that is still the basis for the majority of work in the area.
	www.armeniapedia.org /index.php?title=Andrei_Sakharov (762 words)

	The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II: A Collection of Primary Sources
		Ever since the atomic bombs were exploded over Japanese cities, historians, social scientists, journalists, World War II veterans, and ordinary citizens have engaged in intense controversy about the events of August 1945.
		The total area devastated by the atomic strike on Hiroshima is shown in the darkened area (within the circle) of the photo.
		In a final effort to discourage military use of the bomb, Szilard circulated a petition, which he hoped would reach President Truman, and which was signed by about 68 Manhattan Project scientists, mainly physicists and biologists (copies with the remaining signatures are in the archival file).
	www.gwu.edu /~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm (6922 words)

	Debating the American Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb
		After the atomic bombing of Nagasaki and the Russian entry into the war on August 9th, the Japanese surrendered on August 10th and the U.S. accepted their surrender on August 15th--the day the Russians were scheduled to enter the war against Japan.
		He concludes that the bomb was dropped in 1945 to "shorten the war, and in that they succeeded." For McGeorge Bundy, as for many Americans since, there is little reason to question why the United States dropped the atomic bomb on Japan.
		In conclusion, the American atomic bombing of Japan was the first act in a growing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.
	www.colorado.edu /AmStudies/lewis/2010/atomic.htm (3091 words)

	Klaus Fuchs \| Biography \| atomicarchive.com
		However, Professor Max Born of Edinburgh University intervened on his behalf, and by early 1941, Fuchs had returned to Edinburgh, where he was approached by Rudolf Peierls to work on the British atomic bomb research project.
		In 1943, Fuchs was among the British scientists sent to the U.S. to collaborate on the atom bomb.
		Fuchs later testified that he passed detailed information on the project to the Soviet Union through a courier in 1945, and further information about the hydrogen bomb in 1946 and 1947.
	www.atomicarchive.com /Bios/Fuchs.shtml (307 words)

	The American Experience \| Race for the Superbomb \| Timeline
		December 25: Soviet scientists achieve nuclear chain reaction, one of the first steps in building the atomic bomb.
		September 30: The NSC-68 document that warns of surprise attack by the Soviet Union is adopted as statement of policy.
		November 22: First Soviet thermonuclear bomb [Soviet Two Stage Weapon Test] is dropped in Kazakhstan from an aircraft in test, with a force equivalent to 1.6 megatons of TNT.
	www.pbs.org /wgbh/amex/bomb/timeline/indextxt.html (1924 words)

	Ruth Werner, 93, Colorful and Daring Soviet Spy
		But she always managed to extricate herself from the predicament -- unlike Klaus Fuchs, the agent who fed her the British atomic bomb secrets, who was imprisoned in Britain for nine and a half years, or Richard Sorge, the master spy who recruited her, who was executed in Japan in 1941.
		Her espionage work was entwined with her romantic life, which included an affair with one of her spy chiefs; later she married a British Communist to become a British citizen and only later came to love him.
		Norman Moss, author of "Klaus Fuchs: The Man Who Stole the Atomic Bomb" 1987), said that Vyacheslav Molotov, Stalin's chief aide, set up the Soviet atomic bomb project in 1942 as a result of the information transmitted by Fuchs and Werner, and that the information saved the Soviet researchers a great deal of time.
	www-personal.umich.edu /~sanders/214/other/news/obit-r-werner.html (945 words)

	Amazon.com: Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956: Books: David Holloway (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		He confirms that the Soviets were heavily dependent on espionage to provide both a sense of the seriousness with which the British (and later the Americans) were pursuing nuclear weapons, and guidelines to their methods.
		The achievement of creating an atomic bomb, given the devastating post-war depravation of the Soviet Union can be credited primarily to Igor Kurchatov, the scientific director of the nuclear project from 1942 until his death in 1960.
		After the Soviets demonstrated their ability to create weapons based on nuclear fission, Truman decided to pursue the hydrogen bomb, because there was no indication that Stalin would reciprocate a policy of restraint.
	www.amazon.com /Stalin-Bomb-Soviet-Atomic-1939-1956/dp/0300066643 (2727 words)

	Igor Kurchatov Summary
		He was the leader of the Soviet atomic bomb project.
		The Soviet atomic bomb project remained a relatively low priority until information from spy Klaus Fuchs and later the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki goaded Stalin into action.
		Kurchatov subsequently worked on the Soviet hydrogen bomb program (1953), but later worked for the peaceful use of nuclear technology, and advocated against nuclear bomb tests.
	www.bookrags.com /Igor_Kurchatov (668 words)

	The Hydrogen Bomb, 1950-1956 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-14)
		This invention originally was considered to be related to weaponry, but in 1956 Kurchatov disclosed this and some other formerly secret Soviet ideas during a visit to the British nuclear center in Harwell.
		Sakharov was elected full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, awarded the first of his three Hero of Socialist Labor Medals, as well as Stalin Prize and a luxurious dacha (country house).
		He assumed Tamm’s position at the Installation and made the key contribution to the Soviet Union’s first full-fledged H-bomb, tested in 1955.
	www.aip.org /history/sakharov/hbomb.htm (373 words)

	Reappraising Oppenheimer
		It assembles essays written by leading historians for a 2004 conference in Berkeley, the home of his school of theoretical physics and the site of his group's first calculations of the design parameters for an atomic bomb.
		They explore parallels to the Soviet atomic bomb project and the background to his postwar fall from grace.
		The book is an ideal introduction to cutting-edge research on Oppenheimer for teachers, students, scholars, and the interested public.
	ohst.berkeley.edu /publications/oppenheimer/index.html (311 words)

	Spy Cases - U.S. - A-Bomb - Sudoplatov
		Other aspects of his account -- for example, about the status of the [Soviet] atomic project during the war -- are quite misleading.
		He then served a full sentence of 15 years in Soviet prisons, and was not officially "rehabilitated" until 1991.
		William J. Broad, "F.B.I. Disputes Theory of Atomic Bomb Plot," New York Times, 3 May 1995, A8 (N), reports on an FBI statement that it has no evidence to support Sudoplatov's charges that the architects of the atom bomb spied for Moscow, and in fact has secret evidence to the contrary.
	intellit.muskingum.edu /spycases_folder/bomb_folder/bombsudoplatov.html (1019 words)

	Niels Bohr: The Atomic Bomb and Beyond
		But Bohr was also one of the most foresighted of men, and one of the few who not only thought ahead about the post-World War II implications of the atomic bomb but who personally urged President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill to prepare for the nuclear future.
		But because U-235 comprised less than 1% of uranium and was so difficult to separate from the rest of the uranium, he felt an atomic bomb could not be made in the near future.
		The longer the west hid their a-bomb work from Russia, the more it would appear to Russia that the west intended to threaten them with the weapon.
	www.doug-long.com /bohr.htm (1791 words)

	atomicarchive.com: Exploring the History, Science, and Consequences of the Atomic Bomb
		This site explores the complex history surrounding the invention of the atomic bomb - a crucial turning point for all mankind.
		This section explores the major events of this period including; the development of the hydrogen bomb, the nuclear arms race, détente, nuclear proliferation and the nuclear world after the end of the Cold War.
		This project is part of the National Science Digital Library funded by the Division of Undergraduate Education, National Science Foundation Grant 0434253
	www.atomicarchive.com /index.shtml (292 words)

	Documents Relating to the Development of the Atomic Bomb and Its use on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
		The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb: Minutes of Meeting at White House June 18, 1945 (Evaluation of current situation regarding the War in the Pacific against the Japanese)
		Chronology regarding Truman and the a-bomb from 8/2/45 - 8/10/45 with Smyth report on atomic bomb.
		THE ATOMIC BOMBINGS OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946.
	www.mtholyoke.edu /acad/intrel/hiroshim.htm (3665 words)

	Citizen Kurchatov - Manhattan Project
		During the Second World War, the United States and Britain jointly participated in the monumental task of building an atomic bomb.
		The project was code named the "Manhattan Project" to obscure its purpose, and because the first meetings were conducted in Manhattan.
		"Little Boy" (a uranium-based bomb) was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945, and "Fat Man" was later dropped on Nagasaki on August 9th.
	www.pbs.org /opb/citizenk/newweapon/manhattan.html (182 words)

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