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	Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - MSN Encarta
		Article 36 of the Soviet constitution of 1977 enshrined citizens’ right to use their mother tongues “and the languages of the other peoples of the USSR.” In fact, the Russian language was advantaged, though not to the exclusion of others.
		The Soviet Union had no official state language, but Russian was the preferred language of government and economics, the sole language of military command, and the medium of communication within the CPSU.
		The Soviet Union screened schoolchildren to find talented athletes at an early age, sometimes as young as five or six; those selected for competitive sports were sometimes sent to special schools for that purpose.
	encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761553017_2/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics.html (1776 words)

	Culture of the Soviet Union - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		At first artists and writers were given a fair amount of freedom but many fled Russia because of their opposition to the Bolshevik government.
		Many writers were imprisoned and killed or died of starvation, examples being, Osip Mandelstam, Isaac Babel and Boris Pilnyak.
		In the late Soviet Union Soviet popular culture was characterized by fascination with American popular culture as exemplified by the blue jeans craze.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union (1211 words)

	Russian literature - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Well-known writers of the period include: Anna Akhmatova, Innokenty Annensky, Andrei Bely, Alexander Blok, Valery Bryusov, Marina Tsvetaeva, Sergei Esenin, Nikolay Gumilyov, Daniil Kharms, Velimir Khlebnikov, Osip Mandelstam, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Boris Pasternak, Fedor Sologub and Maximilian Voloshin.
		Whilst Socialist realism gained official support in the Soviet Union, some of the writers -- such as Mikhail Bulgakov, Boris Pasternak, Andrei Platonov, Osip Mandelstam, Isaac Babel and Vasily Grossman -- secretly continued the classical tradition of Russian literature, writing "under the table", with no hope of publishing such works until after their deaths.
		In the late Soviet era émigré authors like Nobel prize winner Joseph Brodsky and short story writer Sergei Dovlatov became successful in the West, but remained known in the Soviet Union only in samizdat.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Russian_literature (1132 words)

	Article Abstracts: #94 (Soviet Science Fiction: The Thaw and After)
		Many of the Thaw writers were faithful Marxists and Communists (they were often instrumental, however, in showing that these are not identical concepts, just as revolution and utopia are not) who took Khrushchev at his word when he promised a reform of socialism and the emancipation of science for the good of humanity.
		The Writers’ Union was decentralized (to dilute the influence of the metropolitan rabble-rousers of Leningrad and Moscow), the editorial boards of the major literary journals were purged, and the party line became that Stalin’s cult of personality did not corrupt the main line of socialist realism.
		Writers, who had essentially been prevented from saying anything for a generation, had been given a role, one which could be practiced “sincerely” even within the tight restrictions.
	www.depauw.edu /sfs/abstracts/icr94intro.htm (3459 words)

	The Writers' Congress
		The First Congress of Soviet Writers convened on August 8, 1934, presided over by the once prodigal son and now loyal Soviet writer, Maksim Gorky.
		The stars of Soviet literature were in attendance, sharing the ornate hall with lesser literary lights.
		The Union of Soviet Writers, sponsor of the event, was formed by the Party Central Committee on 23rd April, 1932.
	www.soviethistory.org /index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1934writers&Year=1934 (543 words)

	Daniel Gerould- On Soviet Science Fiction
		Lahana points out that Soviet SF utopias are seen only from within, not from the outside by a stranger critical of their values, and they thus appear in accord with official Soviet ideology, at least on the surface.
		Soviet SF is seen as a weapon in the post-thaw struggle to liberate literature in the USSR from the stranglehold of socialist realism and to return it to the mainstream tradition of Russian social and philosophical thought and re-establish ties with the great writers of the 1920s, such as Zamyatin, Bulgakov, and Platonov.
		Although Soviet SF had flourished in the 1920s as a part of literature, under Stalin it became a third-rate genre because it had to scale down its utopian vision to fit within the scope of the next five-year plan.
	www.depauw.edu /sfs/review_essays/gerou31.htm (1371 words)

	Chicago Jewish News -- Jewish Chicago's Hometown Newspaper - Archives (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		The writers were framed for participation in the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, which Stalin himself had organized during World War II to rally Soviet Jews and solicit support from America.
		Soviet Jews understood Mikhoels had been killed because, as chairman of the Committee and director of the Yiddish theater, he was the symbol of Jewish consciousness for Soviet Jews in the immediate aftermath of the Holocaust.
		In the winter of 1948-49, the writers, as well as Jewish officials associated with the Committee, were arrested for "spying" for the United States in wartime activities which Stalin himself had micromanaged.
	www.chicagojewishnews.com /archives_articles.jsp?id=31758 (1216 words)

	Summary
		In 1932 the Union of Soviet Writers was formed and within it writers of children's literature had a section of their own.
		Many writers participated in the war as soldiers or as correspondents on the front, and among its victims Arkady Gaydar must be mentioned.
		Writers like Nikolay Dubov wrote about the conflicts of teenagers in the family, at school and at work and subjects like orphanhood, divorce and juvenile crime were also treated.
	www.helsinki.fi /~bhellman/summary.html (2853 words)

	stalin's secret pogrom-INTRO (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		But only the martyred Yiddish writers are mentioned at August 12 commemorations; the other defendants who lost their lives, as well as the sole survivor Lina Shtern, are rarely if ever remembered, perhaps because their careers as loyal Soviet citizens do not fit comfortably into an easy category for Westerners to honor.
		Meanwhile, other writers who had also been arrested were either executed or died in prison: in 1950 alone, Der Nister perished in a labor camp, Isaac Nusinov died in Lefortovo prison, and the the Yiddish journalists Samuel Persov and Miriam Zheleznova were shot.
		Lozovsky pointed out that the Soviet press had nothing but praise for each of them; the JAC could hardly be expected to know they were spies when the NKVD and the MVD, who arranged for their trip, did not know either.
	www.joshuarubenstein.com /rubenstein/stalinsecret/intro.html (3691 words)

	Socialist Realism--Zhdanov (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		The Soviet regime intended not only to change the Russian economy from a emerging capitalist system to socialism, but it also sought to create a uniquely socialist art, different from the art of the capitalist West, considered decadent, with a mission appropriate to the building of communism.
		The proletariat of the capitalist countries is already forging its army of writers and artists-revolutionary writers, the representatives of whom we are glad to be able to welcome here today at the first Soviet Writers' Congress.
		The number of revolutionary writers in the capitalist countries is still small but It is growing and will grow with every day's sharpening of growing strength of the world proletarian revolution.
	www2.kenyon.edu /Depts/PSci/Inst21/SOCREAL.htm (752 words)

	Socialist Realism
		Writers and artists had to accept the metamorphosis of public discourse itself, as editors and journalists plunged into a kind of hyperreality in the face of the disjunction between the promises and results of stalinist policies.
		Yet equivalence between words in the press and their realization by writers and artists was never exact.[10] The phrase had one set of meanings as it was articulated in the newspapers, another at the congress, and a third in the world of the arts, where it was gradually enriched with various practices and experiences.
		Soviet power cannot doubt this devotion because being writers of the Soviet country, we cannot be hostile to this country (Pravda 8/26/34).
	afronord.tripod.com /thr/srealism.html (8467 words)

	'Hamlet' and the Failure of Soviet Authority in Lithuania - Chura
		When he learned of his imminent arrest by Soviet authorities in 1928, Chekhov fled Soviet Russia, never to return and was subsequently stricken from the record of Soviet history—except for brief, disparaging allusions in scattered journals and the notable deviation from these attacks found in Judelevičius's text—until 1969, when his official rehabilitation was enacted.
		Krėvė, the classic Lithuanian writer and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the independent Lithuanian Republic, treated epic Lithuanian folk and cultural themes and was known as a "patriot committed to Lithuania's independent statehood" (Vardys and Sedaitis 51).
		The "Thaw" in 1955-56 was marked by a noticeable loosening of ideological restrictions in Soviet intellectual and cultural life due in part to an "inability of the cultural authorities to agree consistently on what was permissible" (Vardys 170) in both the satellite republics and within Russia.
	www.lituanus.org /2000/00_4_02.htm (9714 words)

	Toronto Slavic Quarterly: Contemporary Prose in Post-Soviet Russia
		To that effect most contemporary Russian writers are the products of Soviet upbringing and education, and the current changes in their mentality, which take place under the influence of the new social environment in which they create, are still in the early stages of development.
		The new Union of Writers of the Russian Federation is conservative, nationalistic, pro-Slavic, anti-Western, and claiming affinity to the Russian historical heritage and the Russian Orthodox Church.
		The former Soviet youth prose, the main objective of which was ideological education and indoctrination, ceased to exist together with the disappearance of its main sponsors the Soviet government and the Young Communist League.
	www.utoronto.ca /tsq/08/shneidman08.shtml (5059 words)

	H-Net Review: Karl Loewenstein on The Making of the State Writer: Social and Aesthetic Origins of Soviet Literary ...
		The core of his argument is that journeyman Soviet writers essentially internalized the principles of Socialist Realism in response to the pressures of the 1920s and 1930s.
		Writers associated with the journal of the same name were minor players in the debates over literature in the 1920s, but their approach foreshadowed the one that would win in the end.
		As he concludes, "Thus, between the Soviet writer (to the degree, of course, that he remained Soviet) and authority, no 'gap' existed: Soviet literature was the natural form of 'bureaucratic writing' and needed no repressions against bureaucrats (Soviet writers)" (p.
	www.h-net.org /reviews/showrev.cgi?path=216991088567522 (1697 words)

	The Soviet Lit Biz by Arnold Beichman (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		No Nuremberg trials for the Soviet killers and torturers, who are probably all receiving their pensions and, with their connections, receiving them on time.
		The end of Russian literature and the formal beginning of Soviet literature came with the 1925 Central Committee resolution "On Party Policy in Literature," which in brief stated that in a classless society art cannot be neutral.
		USSR obtained, first, the right of the Soviet party to decide what was publishable; second, if declared publishable, the party had the right to alter, amend, rewrite, or insert into the manuscript, with or without the author's permission, whatever it was felt would make it even more acceptable to Stalin.
	www.hooverdigest.org /981/beichman.html (1450 words)

	Soviet Writers Congress 1934 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		This was the main, dominant note in the speeches of these writers, and their words at the congress sounded like a confirmation of the victory of the Bolshevik Party, which has constantly guided the movement of literature and educated writers in the spirit of Bolshevism.
		Prior to the congress Soviet writers created a number of images and literary types of the new man, and there are some among these which are executed with talent and will long be remembered.
		Soviet poetry, despite all its achievements, was justly subjected to severe criticism at the congress for its insufficiently high level of culture, for provincialism, for the fact that many poets are lacking in deep ideas and feelings.
	www.marxists.org /subject/art/lit_crit/sovietwritercongress/introduction.htm (1423 words)

	Union of Soviet Writers
		The Union of Soviet Writers was formed by the Central Committee of the Communist Party on 23rd April, 1932.
		Babel told the 1934 Congress of Soviet Writers that: "I have invented a new genre - the genre of silence".
		Writers who refused to change, such as Babel and Pilnyak, were executed or died in labour camps.
	www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk /RUSwriters.htm (347 words)

	Janzteam Easteurope and Russia
		To be a writer in the Soviet Union, one must belong to the Union of Writers.
		Some writers insist, however, that the effect is just the opposite; a quenching of creativity through lack of variety and experience.
		The Soviet Union's literary heritage is, of course, magnificent.
	www.janzteam.com /OSTEUROPE/en/int2.htm (392 words)

	ROAD TO VICTORY [THE VOICE OF RUSSIA]
		The enemy is exerting itself, yet the Red Army resistance is growing stronger by the day Please, give the warmest of regards from Soviet writers and poets to British and American writers, to all those who are bending every effort to wipe out the bloody and bestial Nazism off the face of the earth.
		It was impossible to hold Stalingrad, yet the defenders of the city on the Volga did hold it I remember the day when the people in Europe and overseas heard the incredible news, one that overshadowed all they knew about the valor of soldiers and of the wisdom of military leaders in war history.
		The prominent war journalist, writer and poet Konstantin Simonov wrote down in his diary an excerpt from a letter by his reader who fought in the war, an excerpt that, Simonov felt, “featured a surprisingly brief and precise description of the change that was taking place in the course of fighting”:
	www.vor.ru /English/Victory/vict_24.html (2118 words)

	BBC NEWS \| Europe \| Russian writers attack 'censure'
		A group of Russian writers and musicians has expressed concern that Soviet-era dissident writers are being dropped from the mandatory curriculum in high schools.
		"Soviet canon continues to push out the historical truth that has been acquired over the past 10 years on the...
		In the former Soviet Union, writers had to receive state approval to publish their works, and many dissident writers had been subjected to harsh repressions by the state.
	news.bbc.co.uk /2/hi/europe/3080163.stm (269 words)

	Literary Encyclopedia: The Union Of Soviet Writers (1932-1991)
		The Union of Soviet Writers (Soiuz Sovetskikh pisatelei) was established in April 1932.
		Membership was open to all writers who were intending to publish (including literary critics and translators) and who were striving for the achievement of socialist construction (irrespective of Party membership; therefore “fellow-travellers”, or poputchiki, were eligible for inclusion).
		The first All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, held in Moscow in August 1934, was a huge event, attracting worldwide interest.
	www.litencyc.com /php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=1583 (624 words)

	Commentary Magazine - Art, Politics, & the Soviet Writer (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		The recent convictions of the Russian writers, Andrei Sinyavsky (alias Abram Tertz) and Yuli Daniel (alias Nikolai Arzhak) to seven and five years imprisonment respectively for the crime of sending abroad "anti-Soviet" works constitute only the latest of a number of such scandals which have rocked the Soviet Union since Stalin's death.
		...If artists and writers were particularly hard hit by Stalinism, this was not only because ideas and sensibility are their stock-in-trade and their reason for living, but because they stand in particular need of a vital, unbroken tradition...
		...One suspects that even during a time when writers felt free to act in behalf of their beliefs, they were not yet able to write freely as artists, to overcome-overnight, as it were-the break in the tradition, the decades of repression and inhibition...
	www.commentarymagazine.com /Summaries/V41I5P54-1.htm (6624 words)

	Stalin's Image in Literature (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-24)
		Stalin's complete control of Soviet authors was exemplified by the First Congress of Soviet Writers, held in 1934.
		What made Stalin's control over Soviet writers unique was not the limits put on what could be published, but the demands put on writers as to what they would produce.
		Soviet writers were actually required to build up Stalin's image.
	it.stlawu.edu /~rkreuzer/indv2/conlit.htm (439 words)

	On Some Literary and Artistic Questions in the Soviet Union 1932-40
		The question regarding the creative platform of the amalgamated Union of Soviet Writers, about the literary method of Soviet literature and art, undoubtedly, was a topic of discussions at the meeting of writers with Gorky and Serafimovich, the meetings of the Central Committee of the Party and many other discussions.
		The writer, in his works, needs to portray the true and realistic picture of the revolutionary process in the society, its labour and victories, and accomplishment in deed of such a social formation in which there will be no exploitation of man by man. Truth is a threat for our enemies.
		It states that Soviet aesthetics is based on Lenin’s study of people’s art that led the Soviet literature and art on the path of closeness with people, their life and ideals.
	www.revolutionarydemocracy.org /rdv8n1/litart.htm (4402 words)

	SovLit.com - Soviet Literature Summarized
		The novel which gave its name to an entire era of Soviet history, consisting mainly of interior monologues of a wide range of characters who are living inner personal lives at odds with their outer, public lives.
		The peaceful Soviet motherland is subjected to a perfidious sneak attack by bourgeois forces.
		As the Soviet fathers and older brothers are killed, little children have to join the battle.
	www.sovlit.com (5423 words)

	Reviews/Television; Soviet Writers Revel in New-Found Freedom - New York Times
		LEAD: The birth pangs of the new literary freedom in the Soviet Union are explored tonight in an enlightening documentary.
		Another illuminating segment focuses on the Moscow Writers Union, which continues to provide approved writers with perks, including guaranteed incomes, desirable apartments, cheap vacations and good meals as well as opportunities to be published.
		The playwright Andrei Bitov sums up with the reflection that Soviet writers, accustomed to trying to be free with no freedom, are now learning how to be free with some freedom.
	query.nytimes.com /gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE0D9113BF93AA35750C0A96F948260 (502 words)

	Mercury House Authors: Michael Davidson, Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, and Barrett Matten
		In August 1989, a new, independent organization of young Soviet writers hosted the first international conference for avant-garde writers to be held in the USSR since the Russian Revolution.
		Some misunderstandings that arise are funny: one Russian asks the Americans if the Manson family is a TV show; some are surprising: when asked if she would like feminist literature from the states, a Russian woman requests the complete poems of Jim Morrison.
		American writers were testing their ideals of Western Marxism; the Marxists they had admired idealized American bourgeois democracy.
	www.mercuryhouse.org /leningrad.html (354 words)

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