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	Spindle neuron - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Spindle neurons are a specific class of neurons that participate in signal transmission in the nervous system, and are characterized by a large spindle-shaped soma, gradually tapering into a single apical dendrite (axon) in one direction, with only a single dendrite facing opposite.
		Spindle neurons are relatively enormous cells that refract waves of neural signals as they are transmitted in waves from one region of the brain to other regions.
		Spindle neurons have been implicated by scientists as having an important role in a myriad of cognitive abilities and disabilities generally unique to humans, ranging from savant perceptiveness and perfect pitch to dyslexia and autism.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Spindle_neuron (1284 words)

	biology - Spindle neuron
		Spindle neurons are a specific class of neurons that participate in signal transmission in the nervous system, and are characterized by a large spindle shaped soma, gradually tapering into a single apical dendrite (axon) in one direction, with only a single dendrite facing opposite.
		Spindle neurons are relatively enormous cells that refract waves of neural signals as they are transmitted in waves from one region of the brain to other regions, much as textured rainbows are created by the prismatic effect of sunlight upon the churning mists of waterfalls.
		Spindle neurons have been implicated by scientists as having an important role in a myriad af cognitive abibilities and disabilities generally unique to humans, ranging from savant perceptiveness and perfect pitch to dyslexia and autism.
	www.biologydaily.com /biology/Spindle_neuron (1147 words)

	Neuron - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Neurons are typically composed of a soma, or cell body, a dendritic tree and an axon.
		Neurons communicate with one another via synapses, where the axon terminal of one cell impinges upon a dendrite or soma of another (or less commonly to an axon).
		Golgi-stained neurons in the somatosensory cortex of the macaque monkey.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Neuron (2545 words)

	The Daily Star Web Edition Vol. 5 Num 890 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Spindle cells may be affected by Alzheimer's disease and other debilitating brain disorders such as autism and schizophrenia.
		The researches found spindle neurons in the same location in toothed whales with the largest brains, which the researchers said suggests that they may be related to brain size.
		Spindle neurons probably first appeared in the common ancestor of hominids, humans and great apes about 15 million years ago, the researchers said -- they are not seen in lesser apes or monkeys.
	www.thedailystar.net /2006/11/28/d611281318110.htm (373 words)

	[Frontiers in Bioscience 8, d878-899, May 1, 2003] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		In addition to such closed loops, in which the cortical neuron is excited from a given thalamic nucleus and projects back to the same nucleus, cortical neurons may project to thalamic nuclei that are different from those representing the input source for the cortex.
		For the sake of simplicity, local-circuit inhibitory neurons in cortex and thalamus are not illustrated.
		Cyclic hyperpolarizations characterize neocortical neurons during SWS, but their firing rate during the depolarizing phases of the slow sleep oscillation is as high as during the activated behavioral state of waking.
	www.bioscience.org /2003/v8/d/1043/figures.htm (2240 words)

	Muscle spindle
		Muscle spindles are encapsulated by connective tissue, and are aligned parallel to extrafusal muscle fibers, unlike Golgi tendon organs, which are oriented in series.
		Upon release of acetylcholine by the gamma neuron, the end portions of the intrafusal muscle fibers contract, thus deliberately elongating the non-contractile central portions of intrafusal muscle fibers.
		When a muscle is stretched, primary sensory fibers (Group Ia afferent neurons) of the muscle spindle respond to both the velocity and the degree of stretch, and send this information to the spinal cord.
	www.mrsci.com /Physiology/Muscle_spindle.php (434 words)

	ScienceDaily: Neuron
		Neurons (also known as neurones, nerve cells and nerve fibers) are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system that function to process and transmit information.
		The majority of vertebrate neurons receive input on the cell body and dendritic tree, and transmit output via the axon, although there is great heterogeneity throughout the nervous system, as well as throughout the animal kingdom, in the size, shape and function of neurons.
		Neuron -- Neurons (also known as neurones, nerve cells and nerve fibers) are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system that function to process and transmit information.
	www.sciencedaily.com /encyclopedia/Neuron (1519 words)

	Spindle neuron definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of popular medical terms
		Spindle neuron: A large neuron tapered at both ends that is only found in humans and great apes and so is thought to be a relatively recent evolutionary addition to the nervous system.
		Spindle neurons are confined to the anterior cingulate cortex, a region of the brain that plays a role in emotion, decision-making, and autonomic functions of the brain such as the regulation of the heart rate and blood pressure.
		Spindle neurons are typically lost in the course of Alzheimer disease.
	www.medterms.com /script/main/art.asp?articlekey=25658 (132 words)

	SPINAL MOTOR STRUCTURES
		The afferent neuron is connected to a muscle spindle, which detects stretch in the muscle.
		The efferent neuron is the motor neuron, which causes the muscle to twitch.
		The muscle spindle is a small group of muscle fibers walled off from the rest of the muscle by a collagen sheath.
	thalamus.wustl.edu /course/spinal.html (1662 words)

	Neuron - EvoWiki (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		A neuron is a type of cell specialized for the exchange of chemical signals between itself and other cells.
		Many neurons are also specialized for the transmission of electrical signals along their surface membranes.
		A type of spindle-shaped neuron in the anterior cingulate cortex seems to be a special feature of certain primates including humans.
	wiki.cotch.net /index.php?title=Neuron&redirect=no (275 words)

	A neuronal morphologic type unique to humans and great apes -- Nimchinsky et al. 96 (9): 5268 -- Proceedings of the ...
		Note the clusters of spindle cells in the through-focus photomontage from the human and in the bonobo, whereas isolated neurons are observed in the three other great apes.
		High-magnification computer-generated maps of the localization of spindle neurons in layers V of the anterior cingulate cortex in orangutan (A), gorilla (B), common chimpanzee (C), bonobo (D), and human (E).
		Spindle cells are represented by solid marks, and the neighboring pyramidal neurons are represented by open triangles.
	www.pnas.org /cgi/content/full/96/9/5268 (3785 words)

	Model of Thalamocortical Slow-Wave Sleep Oscillations and Transitions to Activated States -- Bazhenov et al. 22 (19): ...
		Note that the thalamocortical neuron does not fire during all cycles of the slow oscillation, and the cortical neuron does not follow all spike bursts of the thalamocortical neuron.
		of excitatory and inhibitory cortical neurons (Golomb and Ermentrout,
		Lüthi A, Bal B, McCormick DA (1998) Periodicity of thalamic spindle waves is abolished by ZD7288, a blocker of Ih.
	www.jneurosci.org /cgi/content/full/22/19/8691 (6788 words)

	Spiking-Bursting Activity in the Thalamic Reticular Nucleus Initiates Sequences of Spindle Oscillations in Thalamic ...
		The depolarization of RE neurons by inputs arising
		of TC neurons and in the increase in interspindle intervals (Fig.
		Wang XJ, and Rinzel J. Spindle rhythmicity in the reticularis thalami nucleus: synchronization among mutually inhibitory neurons.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/84/2/1076 (5787 words)

	Neurobiology & Anatomy Department at DUCOM: Peter Baas, Ph.D.
		Neurons are terminally postmitotic cells that no longer organize their microtubules into mitotic spindles.
		In terms of structure and function, the microtubule arrays of the neuron would at first glance appear to be as different from the mitotic spindle as one could image.
		The major advancement in understanding the mitotic spindle came when it was realized that microtubules are not organized into a bipolar configuration simply as a result of their assembly and disassembly.
	neurobio.mcphu.edu /BaasWeb/MissionStatement.html (891 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The spindle is a receptor organ sensing length and velocity of movement of a whole muscle.
		When the gamma motor neuron is active, contractile elements, at either pole of the spindle, contract.
		Gamma motor neurons are often called dynamic fusimotor neurons because they increase the overall sensitivity of type Ia fibers (afferents) especially to dynamic stimuli.
	www.muhealth.org /~md2004/draft3/1-24reflex.doc (402 words)

	cooltech.iafrica.com \| science & nature A whale of a brain
		The spindle neuron is associated with various aspects of cognition, from recognition and memory to communication.
		CNET News.com reported that, in the past, spindle neurons have been found in toothed whales such as orcas, which have larger brains and are generally considered more intelligent than baleen whales (eg.
		Spindle neurons are believed by evolutionists to have first appeared in the ancestors of hominids and great apes approximately 15 million years ago.
	cooltech.iafrica.com /science/477355.htm (302 words)

	Synaptic Interactions Between Thalamic and Cortical Inputs Onto Cortical Neurons In Vivo -- Fuentealba et al. 91 (5): ...
		Electrophysiological identification of cortical neuron and its responses to thalamic and cortical inputs.
		The intrinsic excitability of a thalamocortical neuron and the
		Reyes A and Sakmann B. Developmental switch in the short-term modification of unitary EPSPs evoked in layer 2/3 and layer 5 pyramidal neurons of rat neocortex.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/91/5/1990 (4692 words)

	Well-Wired Whales -- Balter 2006 (1127): 1 -- ScienceNOW
		To their surprise, they found spindle neurons in several large-brained species, including the humpback whale and the fin whale.
		Yet the spindle neurons were absent from the brains of smaller-brained whales, as well as the brains of dolphins, the team reports online this week in The Anatomical Record.
		By comparing the evolutionary histories of the spindle neuron haves and have-nots, Hof and Van der Gucht estimate that whales evolved spindle neurons between 22 million and 30 million years ago--at least 7 million years before great apes evolved them.
	sciencenow.sciencemag.org /cgi/content/full/2006/1127/1 (561 words)

	Scientific American: Humpback whales have "human" brain cells: study (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The finding may help explain some of the behaviors seen in whales, such as intricate communication skills, the formation of alliances, cooperation, cultural transmission and tool usage, the researchers report in The Anatomical Record.
		Although the function of spindle neurons is not well understood, they may be involved in cognition -- learning, remembering and recognizing the world around oneself.
		Either the spindle neurons were only kept in the animals with the largest brains or they evolved several times independently, the researchers said.
	sciam.com /print_version.cfm?articleID=1FA734CAF1090F7AF9249745564EC09B (460 words)

	Health Highlights: Nov. 27, 2006 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Humpback whales have a type of brain cell called a spindle neuron that's found in the cerebral cortex of large primates such as humans and gorillas, says a study published online Monday in the journal The Anatomical Record.
		Researchers at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City said they found that the whales not only have spindle neurons in the same area of the cortex where these brain cells are found in hominids, but also in other parts of their brain, CBC News reported.
		Spindle cells are believed to play a role in cognitive processes such as learning, memory and recognition.
	www.crh.org /healthnews/healthday/061127HD536291.htm (964 words)

	Transcriptional regulation of myotube fate specification and intrafusal muscle fiber morphogenesis -- Albert et al. 169 ...
		The muscle expression of all of these genes was restricted to the developing spindles (arrows), similar to the expression pattern of Egr3, whereas their expression was abrogated in Pea3-expressing (Ia-afferent contacted), Egr3-deficient myotubes.
		Motor neurons (mn) present in Tg– spinal cords (lumbar cord shown) were entirely absent in Tg+/H mice, leaving only spinal interneurons in their place.
		Complete motor neuron loss was corroborated by the absence of ventral roots (vr), which carry motor axons into the periphery.
	www.jcb.org /cgi/content/full/169/2/257 (6526 words)

	ScienceWeek
		However, the neuronal types that populate the neocortex have apparently remained remarkably constant, and are morphologically recognizable across primate species.
		This neuron type has been described in the human cortex and in the cortex of the common chimpanzee, and recent studies in humans apparently indicate that spindle cells are especially vulnerable to degeneration in *Alzheimer's disease, with a loss of approximately 60 percent of these particular nerve cells.
		The authors suggest that the fact that these unique neurons are apparently severely affected in the degenerative process of Alzheimer's disease indicates that some of the differential neuronal susceptibility that occurs in the human brain in the course of age-related dementing illnesses may have appeared only recently during primate evolution.
	www.scienceweek.com /1999/sw990716.htm (8475 words)

	People's Daily Online -- Humpback whales have "human" brain cells (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		U.S. marine scientists say they've found humpback whales have a type of brain cell that is also seen in human brains.
		Researchers of the Department of Neuroscience at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York studied the brains of humpback whales and discovered a type of cell called a spindle neuron in the cortex, in areas comparable to where they are seen in humans and great apes.
		The function of spindle neurons, which is not well understood yet, may be involved in cognition -- learning, remembering and recognizing the world around oneself.
	english.peopledaily.com.cn /200611/28/eng20061128_325873.html (210 words)

	Neuron -- Berke et al. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		We observed opposite gradients of oscillatory entrainment, with dorsal/lateral striatal neurons entrained to high-voltage spindle oscillations (“spike wave discharges”) and ventral/medial striatal neurons entrained to the hippocampal theta rhythm.
		While the majority of units were likely medium-spiny projection neurons, a second neuronal population showed characteristic features of fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons, including tonic activity, brief waveforms, and high-frequency bursts.
		These fired at an earlier spindle phase than the main neuronal population, and their density within striatum corresponded closely to the intensity of spindle oscillations.
	www.neuron.org /content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0896627304005628 (241 words)

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