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Topic: Standard genetic code

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	Genetic code - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The genetic code is a set of rules that maps information encoded in messenger RNA sequences to amino acid sequences (proteins) in the living cell, and is employed in the process of protein synthesis.
		Numerous variations of the standard genetic code are found in mitochondria, which are energy-producing organelles that reside inside eukaryotic cells.
		Since there are many possible genetic codes that are thought to have similar utility to the one used by Earth life, the theory of evolution suggests that the genetic code was established very early in the history of life.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Genetic_code (2208 words)

	Wikinfo \| Genetic code (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The genetic code is a mapping that biological cells use to "translate" sequences of three nucleotide bases (called "triplets" or "codons") into amino acids.
		For instance, GAU codes for the amino acid Asp (asparagine), and Cys (cysteine) is coded for by the codons UGU and UGC.
		Numerous variations on the standard genetic code are found inside mitochondria, energy-burning organelles that were probably derived from symbiotic bacteria.
	www.wikinfo.org /wiki.php?title=Genetic_code (782 words)

	Biological Sciences at UMBC
		However, the discoveries of a 21st amino acid selenocysteine, a 22nd amino acid pyrrolysine, and of some non-standard genetic codes in organelle, prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes, make the dominance of both the standard amino acid alphabet and the standard genetic code more intriguing.
		To tackle this, I am looking into the link between amino acid properties and the structure of the standard genetic code, since previous evidence shows that the arrangement of codon/amino acid assignments in the standard genetic code efficiently minimizes the phenotypic impact of genetic error.
		Current results demonstrate that the high variety of the standard amino acid alphabet and the high error minimization effect of the standard genetic code could coexist when the mutation bias is high, which is very possible during early genetic code evolution.
	www.umbc.edu /biosci/Graduate/students/yilu.html (265 words)

	genetic code, what is it - Rafiki
		Without this insight we are blind, and the genetic code goes from a periodic table of elements to a table of periodic elements as viewed by Michael Teague.
		It was announced long ago that the genetic code had been captured, and this mis-truth has been repeated so many times that people truly believe that the genetic code is leading a peaceful existence in captivity, inside tiny spreadsheets, stored in millions of textbooks around the world.
		The theory of a genetic code with a single dimension of information translated across many levels of organic molecules should be in severe crisis by these discoveries, but yet we chose to cling tightly to it.
	www.codefun.com /Genetic_what1.htm (8660 words)

	The Non-Universality of the Genetic Code
		Original studies of the genetic code demonstrated that it was constant throughout the plant, protists, and animal kingdoms.
		It was taught (even in my college days) that the genetic code should be universal as predicted by the theory of evolution, since alterations of the genetic code would be lethal in those individuals which acquired genetic code mutations.
		There is no pattern of change in the code of related groups of organisms and none of the organisms which possess altered genetic code exhibit any form of evolutionary descent or common ancestry which might imply that the genetic code had evolved.
	www.geocities.com /CapeCanaveral/Lab/6562/evolution/trnasml.html (1155 words)

	Symmetry's Role in the genetic code - Rafiki
		If the genetic code is to be the function responsible for protein synthesis it must have a method of selecting one protein from many possible, not just consecutive amino acids from a limited group of amino acids.
		The genetic code is also charged with the task of finding proteins within sequences of nucleotides, because any useful protein must first be found in a nucleotide sequence before it is reliably and repeatedly made from it.
		The standard genetic code is optimized for diversity and consistency by symmetrically assigning a network of twenty amino acids across a network of nucleotides.
	www.codefun.com /Genetic_role.htm (6893 words)

	nonstandard genetic codes
		It was taught (even in my college days) that the genetic code should be universal as predicted by the theory of evolution, since alterations of the genetic code would be lethal in those individuals that acquired genetic code mutations.
		More cases of non-standard codes could be examined and more detail could be provided but the data and references provided here should suffice to demonstrate that the presence of non-standard genetic codes is not a "huge problem" for evolutionary theory.
		A deviant mitochondrial genetic code in prymnesiopytes (yellow-aglae): UGA codon for tryptophan.
	home.entouch.net /dmd/gencode.htm (3793 words)

	iB::Topic::The Canonical Genetic Code
		The phrase "genetic code" is sometimes sloppily used to refer to the specific sequence of bases observed in the genome of an organism.
		The "genetic code" is used here as the way in which triplets of three nucleotide bases are mapped to corresponding amino acids for the purpose of protein synthesis.
		All known nonstandard genetic codes appear to be secondarily derived minor modifications of the canonical code (Osawa 1995).
	www.antievolution.org /projects/collab/canonical_genetic_code_p01.htm (5556 words)

	GENOME BIOLOGY: ON THE GENETIC CODE
		In general, the term "genetic code" refers to the sequences of nucleotides in DNA and RNA that determine the various amino acid sequences of proteins.
		The code was once believed to be identical in all forms of life, but the codon-amino acid code differs in mitochondria, in certain bacteria, and in certain ciliated protozoa.
		In the context that concerns the evolution of the genetic code, the term "coevolution theory" refers to a set of theories proposing a linked evolution between the evolution of the genetic code and the evolution of amino acid biosynthetic pathways.
	scienceweek.com /2004/sa041126-3.htm (2095 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		Abstract: The Standard Genetic Code (SGC) is the mapping between codons and amino acids employed in nearly every living organism.
		Shortly after it was deduced by Nirenberg and his contemporaries, many noticed that the mapping is not random: the SGC associates physicochemically similar amino acids with codons that are often mistaken for one another in replication and translation.
		However, in 1968 Crick argued that genetic codes cannot be selected for error minimization because changing an existing genetic code is likely to render large parts of the pre-existing protein-coding messages meaningless, which implies an immediate devastating loss in fitness.
	www.math.technion.ac.il /~techm/20001109160020001109sel (205 words)

	Custom genetic code
		Translation to protein will be performed by using one of the predefined genetic codes, or by using custom genetic code.
		The genetic code used to translate a sequence into protein may be customized.
		In the example bellow is shown the standard genetic code and the corresponding triplets.
	www.biophp.org /minitools/dna_to_protein/demo.php?action=info (334 words)

	EvolvingCode.net - non standard genetic codes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		Non-standard genetic codes are, quite simply, genetic codes in which one or more codons have a different amino acid assignment from that found in the standard genetic code.
		Non-standard genetic codes are found in all three domains of life.
		Black discs denote further changes in codons that already deviate from the canonical code; red discs denote instances of codon ambiguity, with specific codons translated either as the canonical amino acid or as the indicated non-standard meaning, depending on the circumstance (for yeast, see Ref. 7; for bacteria see Ref. 69).
	www.evolvingcode.net /index.php?page=non_standard_genetic_codes (311 words)

	Glutamine is one of the 20 amino acids encoded by the standard genetic code.
		Glutamine is one of the 20 amino acids encoded by the standard genetic code.
		Formation and Nomenclature Glutamine is genetically coded for by the RNA codons CAA and CAG.
		glutamine peptides Glutamine is one of the 20 amino acids encoded by the standard genetic code.
	glutamine.cinephiles.net (414 words)

	Rare Variants of the Almost Entirely Universal Genetic Code are Evidence of Evolution, Not Design -- RW ONLINE
		The fact that this genetic code--the chemical "rule book" for making proteins--is exactly the same in essentially all organisms (with only a few very minor exceptions) is itself very strong evidence that all living species are related to each other and evolved out of a long series of common (shared) ancestors.
		The genetic code is the mechanism through which chemical information contained in a gene (a section of a DNA molecule) is "read" and "translated" into the set of instructions which cells use to string the amino acids together into one particular order rather than another.
		Such minor variations don't change the fact that the identical genetic code shared by almost 100% of all plant and animal species (in which all the different triplets code for exactly the same amino acids) is extremely strong evidence that all species are derived from shared ancestors.
	rwor.org /a/1216/gencode.htm (1601 words)

	The Non-Universality of the Genetic Code
		It was taught (even in my college days) that the genetic code should be universal as predicted by the theory of evolution, since alterations of the genetic code would be lethal in those individuals that acquired genetic code
		There is no pattern of change in the code of related groups of organisms and none of the organisms that possess altered genetic code exhibit any form of evolutionary descent or common ancestry, which might imply that the genetic code had evolved.
		Since all life must be related to their relatives, the genetics must reflect this fact.
	www.godandscience.org /evolution/trnamut.html (901 words)

	Flexibility of the genetic code with respect to DNA structure (ResearchIndex) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		Abstract: Motivation: The primary function of DNA is to carry genetic information through the genetic code.
		Here we study the relationship between the genetic code and DNA structure and address two questions.
		First, to which degree does the degeneracy of the genetic code and the acceptable amino...
	citeseer.ist.psu.edu /446807.html (768 words)

	The Mitochondrial Genome of the Sea Anemone Metridium senile (Cnidaria): Introns, a Paucity of tRNA Genes, and a ...
		The Mitochondrial Genome of the Sea Anemone Metridium senile (Cnidaria): Introns, a Paucity of tRNA Genes, and a Near-Standard Genetic Code -- Beagley et al.
		The Mitochondrial Genome of the Sea Anemone Metridium senile (Cnidaria): Introns, a Paucity of tRNA Genes, and a Near-Standard Genetic Code
		For translation of mtDNA nucleotide sequences, the following nonstandard genetic code specifications were used: TGA specifies tryptophan in all three species, ATA specifies methionine in the mouse and D.
	www.genetics.org /cgi/content/full/148/3/1091 (6649 words)

	[3] Non-standard Genetic Codes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The standard genetic code applies to most, but not all, cases.
		Exceptions have been found in the mitochondrial DNA of many organisms and in the nuclear DNA of a few lower organisms.
		Plant cells use the standard* genetic code in both mitochondria and the nucleus.
	www.web-books.com /MoBio/Free/Ch3E1.htm (53 words)

	Genetic Code Widget 1.2.1 - MacUpdate
		The Genetic Code widget displays the standard genetic code in a simple table showing the 64 codons and the amino acids each codon codes for.
		The one-letter code for GGT is now correct (G and not C).
		SCRABBLER I like the idea, but some of the background colors are so dark that the text is difficult to read.
	www.macupdate.com /info.php/id/19301 (189 words)

	Genetic Code Widget - Dashboard - Reference
		Displays the standard genetic code in a simple table showing the 64 codons and the amino acids each codon codes for.
		- The one-letter code for GGT is now correct (G and not C).
		Any questions, complaints or claims regarding the applications must be directed to the appropriate software vendor.
	www.apple.com /downloads/dashboard/reference/geneticcodewidget.html (104 words)

	Wendy Zhu \| Home
		The major research component of my research work will consist of a series of simulations to investigate a fundamental reinterpretation of the adaptive genetic code in terms of the influence of coding rules on the rate of adaptive protein sequence evolution.
		By exploring the role of different genetic codes in influencing the evolutionary dynamic of natural selection operating on both linear genes sequences and protein 3D structure, I seek to test:
		Besides these, I also developed a webpage that focuses on the non-standard genetic codes.
	userpages.umbc.edu /~wenzhu1 (196 words)

	Table of Standard Genetic Code
		The Genetic Code, Codon Usage, and Degenerate Primer Design
		When designing oligonucleotides to consensus amino acid sequences, it is usually impossible to exactly determine the nucleotide sequence given the degeneracy of the genetic code (64 codons for 20 amino acids, and the stop signal).
		In these case, and when carrying out degenerate PCR, so-called degenerate primers are used with all possible codons present in the population.
	www.r9corporation.fsnet.co.uk /geneticcodef.htm (399 words)

	[3E] The Genetic Code (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		There must be a specific relationship between the nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence.
		This relationship is the so called genetic code, which was deciphered by Marshall Nirenberg and his colleagues in early 1960s.
		One of their approaches is illustrated in Figure 3-E-2.
	www.web-books.com /MoBio/Free/Ch3E.htm (166 words)

	Chapter 4. Gene=Enzyme, RNA Transcription, Genetic Code
		Using genetic and biochemical approaches with bread mold (Neurospora crassa), Beadle and Tatum devised the first hypothesis about the functional nature of genes.
		Although variations exist in some organisms, the standard genetic code is evolutionarily ancient.
		The code evolved at random, in that there is no direct chemical connection between, say, GGG and Glycine.
	biology.kenyon.edu /courses/biol114/Chap04/Chapter_04.html (849 words)

	Untitled Document
		The code is read in non overlapping groups of three mRNA nucleotides.
		The table shown above shows the standard genetic code shared by most organisms on the planet.
		The near universality of the code suggests that the code arose very early in the evolution of life.
	staff.jccc.net /pdecell/proteinsynthesis/gencode.html (401 words)

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