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Topic: Statistical special pleading

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Logical fallacy

Ecological fallacy

Misuse of statistics

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	Classics in the History of Psychology -- Fisher (1925) Chapter 1
		Statistics may be regarded as (i.) the study of populations, (ii.) as the study of variation, (iii.) as the study of methods of the reduction of data.
		This particular dependence of social studies upon statistical methods has led to the painful misapprehension that statistics is to be regarded as a branch of economics, whereas in truth economists have much to learn from their scientific contemporaries, not only in general scientific method, but in particular in statistical practice.
		Consequently a special importance belongs to a smaller group of statistics, the error distributions of which tend to the normal distribution, as the sample is increased, with the least possible variance.
	psychclassics.yorku.ca /Fisher/Methods/chap1.htm (4826 words)

	Special Report No.9
		Statistical data put forth by the Government describing decreases in violations are meaningless or at best of seasonal significance, in the absence of matching institutional change.
		One man was pleading on his knees while a soldier held him by the hair and beat him with a thick piece of wood.
		A privileged few had early notice to leave with their possessions (our Special Report No. 6) The international networks had to be primed to articulate this message and represent the enormous sufferings of the dispossessed as being due to the Government alone, and promote the LTTE as their saviour.
	www.uthr.org /SpecialReports/spreport9.htm (17607 words)

	Chapter 89. Adaptations for Special Populations (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Special education services are temporary, contingent upon either receipt of valid assessment data from the previous school district or the collection of new assessment data.
		Special education full-time equivalents generated shall be deducted from the school district's ADA for purposes of the regular education allotment.
		Copies of all pleadings shall be sent to all parties of record in the hearing and to the hearing officer.
	www.tea.state.tx.us /sboe/schedule/9607/89-1001.htm (11245 words)

	Glossary of Terms Commonly Used in Court
		The word used by an accused in pleading to the charges when he confesses to committing the crime of which he is charged.
		Used as a technical term to describe a hearing or pleading which is orally presented.
		Pleadings - The formal allegations by the parties of their respective claims and defenses, for the judgment of the court.
	www.courts.state.va.us /glossary_of_court_terms.html (4882 words)

	NLRB - Best Practices Compliance Case Report
		When arguments for special remedial provisions are not made in the underlying litigation, such notice issues have proven difficult to resolve at the compliance stage of the case.
		Properly applied, statistical sampling is a scientifically accurate, widely accepted procedure to determine characteristics of a population by selecting and analyzing data from a small percentage of the population.
		Statistical sampling can be used (1) informally to determine backpay for settlement agreements and compliance with Board orders, or (2) formally as a basis for compliance specifications and supplemental litigation.
	www.lawmemo.com /nlrb/bestpractices.htm (6263 words)

	Supreme Court of Virginia Opinions in Word Processed Format
		The trial court further erred in sustaining a demurrer to a count pleading violation of the implied warranty of merchantability, because it is not necessary to plead with specificity the specific trade or industry standard for merchantability in order to withstand a demurrer.
		The defamatory statements were not opinion, the claim was timely and properly plead and proven, and actual malice was shown by clear and convincing evidence, but the trial court failed to consider factors in evidence relevant to the compensatory damages award.
		The circuit court erred in holding that zoning provisions in a county code permitted construction of an access road to transport materials mined under a special use permit on land zoned for agricultural use across another portion of that land that was zoned for residential use.
	www.courts.state.va.us /scndex.htm (13255 words)

	1esef
		These fundamental flaws in conventional statistical methods have long been recognised within the statistics community, but repeated warnings about their implications have had little impact on the practices of working scientists.
		One key feature of these statistical tests is that they appear to require no skill or training in statistics, and seem to lead to a single, objective and easily-understood result.
		Determination of the so-called P-value of the test statistic, that is, the probability of obtaining a test-statistic at least as large as that actually observed, on the assumption that the null hypothesis is actually true.
	ourworld.compuserve.com /homepages/rajm/openesef.htm (7406 words)

	Special Report
		In one recent case, an FBI Special Agent resigned while under investigation by the FBI's Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) for having an inappropriate relationship with an informant and failing to be truthful during the ensuing OPR inquiry.
		Special Agents who handle CIs are required by the Guidelines (and the MIOG) to instruct or caution them at certain intervals.
		We also examined the role played by Confidential Informant Coordinators, who are GS-10 through GS-13 non-supervisory Special Agents who have the responsibility, as their principal assignment or as collateral duty, to assist FBI agents with issues associated with the administration and operation of human sources.
	www.usdoj.gov /oig/special/0509/chapter3.htm (15240 words)

	Antitrust Division Manual
		A Special Assistant in the Criminal Division in the Alexandria U.S. Attorney's office is involved in misdemeanor prosecutions in Magistrate Court, grand jury work, motions, pleas, probation revocations, and trial in District Court, as well as appellate briefs and arguments in the 4th Circuit.
		Special Assistants in D.C. prosecute misdemeanor offenses, participating in all phases of the process, from interviewing arresting officers to conducting bench and jury trials.
		The Special Assistants may also be aware of forms of questions, definitions, and other document request strategy, based upon its review of a wide variety of CID and Second Requests, including possibly previous requests of the particular subjects of the present investigation.
	www.usdoj.gov /atr/foia/divisionmanual/ch6.htm (9970 words)

	Fallacies about rules
		In special pleading someone claims that they (or someone they are defending) should not have to follow the rules, without providing sufficient evidence to support such an exception (Damer p 145).
		Special pleading is one type of double standard, but there are others.
		Lomborg describes the Worldwatch Institute's actions in prejudicial language such as "selective figure", "faulty logic" and "statistical finesse." But Lomborg is wrong, with today's trade grain is a world-wide market, and changing the criteria to make sure that the "other side" is wrong is faulty logic.
	info-pollution.com /rules.htm (622 words)

	Herbert Sussman- Victorian Science Fiction
		The elaborate statistical analysis of Victorian authorship in general only confirms the received opinion that Victorian literature was produced by the professional and merchant class.
		Such special pleading, especially since any moment during the Victorian era can be seen within any particular historical narrative as indicating a "crisis of confidence, " suggests the danger of creating exact relations between literary productions, particularly book-length fictions, and social change.
		Perhaps this statistical divergence suggests a group of people who through personal exposure to societies radically different from bourgeois England were able to escape the pervasive ethnocentrism of the Victorians and seek literary forms that could, without subverting fully the ethos of imperialism, valorize alternative worlds.
	www.depauw.edu /sfs/review_essays/sussm34.htm (2038 words)

	FORCES International - John Luik - A Response to: "Towards Healthier Communities in Nova Scotia
		The EPA analysis of these 11 studies claims that they show a statistically significant difference in the number of lung cancers occurring in the non-smoking spouses of smokers such that they suffer 119 such cancers compared with 100 such cancers in nonsmoking spouses of nonsmokers.
		It is this finding of statistical significance, a finding based on only the 11 U. studies,10 of which found no significant association, that is the basis for the EPA decision to classify ETS as a "Group A" carcinogen.
		And, this places a special moral burden on those who use the notion of risk and risk assessment in public policy debates to be certain that the concept is used with integrity and not simply as a lever to frighten.
	www.forces.org /research/luik/luik-st/toward.htm (8648 words)

	AD & SCM Compendium: Steps of the Investigation - Initiation of Investigation (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Investigations to determine the existence, degree and impact of alleged dumping or subsidies are initiated upon submission of a written petition by the domestic industry or on its behalf.
		Under special circumstances, the Commission may decide to initiate an investigation without having received a written petition submitted by the domestic industry or on its behalf.
		Except as provided for in paragraph 8.5 of this Article, an investigation to determine the existence, degree and effect of any alleged dumping shall be initiated upon a written application to the Ministry of Industry and Commerce by or on behalf of the domestic industry.
	www.sice.oas.org /cp_adcvd/english/040200up.asp (4534 words)

	FORCES International - John Luik - SMOKESCREEN: 'PASSIVE SMOKING' AND PUBLIC POLICY
		Using evidence from the four most recent case-control studies shows two studies with no increased average risk, one study with a statistically increased risk and one study with an increased risk that is not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level.
		Taken together with the fact that only twelve of the 40 studies presented in table 5.2 reach statistical significance, it is readily apparent that the evidence does not support the conclusion that the Hill criteria of coherence and consistency have been met.
		And this places a special moral burden on those who use the notion of risk and risk assessment in public policy debates to be certain that the concept isa used with integrity and not simply as a lever to frighten.
	www.forces.org /research/luik/files/smokescr.htm (11078 words)

	The Incompatibility of Naturalism and Scientific Realism
		There is one special notion that had to be defined: that of being "wholly contingent," represented by W.
		In fact, Oppy's restriction of the universality of causation to non-first events is a classic case of special pleading, until and unless he can provide some principled ground for thinking that the absence of temporally prior situations is relevant to the presence or absence of a cause.
		Such a specification is necessary if we are to account for the statistical properties of causal connections, the so-called "Markovian principles" developed by Salmon and Suppes, and studied recently by Pearl and Verma and Spirtes, Glymour and Scheines.
	www.leaderu.com /offices/koons/docs/defeasible.html (3503 words)

	HIV & AIDS - AZT on Trial
		Not a single table was acceptable according to statistical standards-indeed, not a single table made sense.
		In particular, the first report, on "efficacy", was marred by contradictions, ill-logic, and special pleading.
		Statistically, this is highly significant-the probabilities are better than 99 out of 100 that the difference (1% vs.
	www.virusmyth.net /aids/data/jltrial.htm (6054 words)

	A Lawyers Guide to Norway (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		The religion of the Norwegian state is Protestant-Lutheran, and the majority of the population belong to this church which is administered by the State through a special Ministry.
		There is a special investment tax of 7 % on assets determined for use in trade or business.
		Preparation and pleading of cases are based on the adversarial system and oral pleading in the main hearing.
	hg.org /1111.html (14026 words)

	General Division Rules for the Lucas County Court of Common pleas
		PLEADING EXTENSIONS The time within which a party is required by the Civil Rules to serve and file a responsive pleading to a complaint, a counterclaim a cross-claim, or a third party complaint shall be extended for a period of 28 days upon advance application filed with the clerk of courts on the designated form.
		AMENDMENTS No pleading shall be amended by interlineation or obliteration unless leave of court is first obtained.
		Upon the filing of an amended pleading, the original or any prior amendment shall not be withdrawn from the file except upon leave of court.
	co.lucas.oh.us /CommonPleas/rules.asp (8475 words)

	OnDemand Journal
		But I had no idea the pain that was ahead of me over the next six years as I chased the ideal state of one-to-one--the moment when everyone is calling me; asking me and pleading with me to help increase revenues in their company with my one-to-one expertise.
		If a woman pre-registers to deliver her baby in a hospital in the next six weeks, it means many life events are going to happen over the next years.
		This site provides free news, special reports, white papers and case studies about this dynamic and vital part of the graphic arts industry.
	www.ondemandjournal.com /specialfeatures/wesner5.cfm (1541 words)

	Chapter 89. Adaptations for Special Populations, Subchapter AA. Special Education Services
		An eligible student receiving special education services who is 21 years of age on September 1 of a school year shall be eligible for services through the end of that school year or until graduation with a regular high school diploma pursuant to §89.1070 (b)(1)-(2) of this title, whichever comes first.
		The special education teacher or special education provider that participates in the ARD committee meeting in accordance with 34 CFR, §300.344(a)(3), must be certified in the child's suspected areas of disability.
		A FAPE means special education and related services that are provided at public expense under public supervision; meet the state standards which include the requirements of IDEA, Part B; include preschool, elementary, and secondary school education; and are provided in conformity with an individual education plan, pursuant to 20 USC, §1401(a)(18).
	www.tea.state.tx.us /rules/tac/ch089aa.html (15454 words)

	Fallacies [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
		When the fallacy of jumping to conclusions is committed due to a special emphasis on an anecdote or other piece of evidence, then the fallacy of misleading vividness has occurred.
		Special pleading is a form of inconsistency in which the reasoner doesn't apply his or her principles consistently.
		When some of the statistical evidence is expected to be relevant to the results but is hidden or overlooked, the fallacy is called suppressed evidence.
	www.iep.utm.edu /f/fallacy.htm (13659 words)

	Charles Sanders Peirce (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
		In Peirce's theory the sign relation is a triadic relation that is a special species of the genus: the representing relation.
		The sign relation is the special species of the representing relation that obtains whenever the first interpretant (and consequently each member of the whole infinite sequence of interpretants) has a status that is mental, i.e.
		Of special interest in this regard is the fact that he considered the relation of similarity to be a triadic relation, rather than a dyadic relation.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/peirce (10574 words)

	Reports of the Death of Speed of Light Decay are Premature
		His statistical analyses are intricate and difficult for laymen to follow, but it is not always clear whether his method involves weighting the results or not, which I would contend is an important aspect.
		In contrast, the statistical analysis that says there has been no decrease is the very faulty 'weighted regression' fit to a straight line.
		This ploy is known as 'special pleading' in the law courts.
	www.ldolphin.org /bowden/centj.html (4665 words)

	Some Fallacies
		A special case: the argument may simply be invalid because a term in it is taken in more than one sense.
		The Hasty Generalization is a statistical no-no, when an observation of a rather small group is assumed to apply to a larger group.
		A case of special pleading is a person's holding others to a different standard to himself (or someone who represents his case), without justification for the different standard.
	www.tektonics.org /guest/fallacies.html (5276 words)

	Office of Compliance: Rules of Procedure
		Nothing contained in these rules shall prevent the Executive Director from reporting statistical information to the Senate and House of Representatives, so long as that statistical information does not reveal the identity of the employees involved or of employing offices that are the subject of a request for counseling.
		Every pleading, motion, and other filing of a party represented by an attorney or other designated representative shall be signed by the attorney or representative.
		If a pleading, motion, or other filing is not signed, it shall be stricken unless it is signed promptly after the omission is called to the attention of the person who is required to sign.
	www.compliance.gov /procedures/rulesofprocedure.html (17065 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		Given Mendel's vast data, his personality, and his conviction about the importance of his work, a decision to condemn his records to the flames is not incompatible with the possibility that he was aware of some irregularities in the records.
		Even for those who believe that statistics can somehow resolve the glaring irregularities in Mendel's data, no fresh review of this subject is called for because it has received the attention of competent statisticians.
		Of special interest here are recent experiments in which natural scientists served as the subjects and which bring this human failing into sharp relief (39; 25].
	www.nih.gov /welcome/director/ebiomed/mendel.htm (5517 words)

	The Autonomist - Logic Fallacies
		"Mayor Mike pointed out that crime statistics for the city had declined during the last three years of his administration." Not mentioned is the fact crime statistics formerly based on arrests, are now based on convictions.
		Special pleading fallacy - Accepting (or rejecting) an idea or criticism when applied to an opponent's argument but rejecting (accepting) it when applied to one's own argument.
		Variations of the democratic and consensus gentium fallacies are frequent contributors to fallacious interpretations of statistical data.
	theautonomist.com /aaphp/permanent/fallacies.php (14595 words)

	Civil Justice Memo 33 \| Science in the Courts, by Peter Huber and Kenneth R. Foster
		In particular, statistics offers clear guidelines for valid uses of tests for statistical inference, from the assumptions that were made in developing the tests.
		Sophistic presentation of scientific data is a particular problem in court because science often relies on statistical reasoning which is often very counter-intuitive or at least difficult to fathom for jurors unaccustomed to quantitative reasoning.
		In the minds of ordinary jurors, that special status undoubtedly derives from the perception that scientists as a group have special education, special means for discovering scientific knowledge, and special procedures for checking out each other’s work.
	www.manhattan-institute.org /html/cjm_33.htm (3967 words)

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