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Topic: Symbolic linguistic representation

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	Edward Sazonov: Home Page
		Linguistic variables, membership functions, hedges and fuzzy operations are referenced by their respective symbolic names.
		Symbolic representation of the rules allows easy understanding of the rules and simplifies the debugging process.
		Linguistic variable "weight" is defined by the user and serves for the purpose of changing a rule's weight.
	people.clarkson.edu /~esazonov/FuzzyEngine.htm (1447 words)

	Untitled
		To be a distributed representation, then, is to be a member of such a scheme; it is to be a representation R of a series of items C such that the encoding process which generates R on the basis of C implements a given distributing transformation.
		To count as symbolic a representation must satisfy at least three purely formal conditions: it must belong to a space of expression tokens that is digitally structured; the expression itself must be grammatically well-formed; and it must be concatenatively structured.
		While symbolic representation is essentially digital, distributed schemes are typically analog in that they allow a smooth continuum of acceptable representation instances, and so fail to guarantee the possibility of unambiguous determination of a given representation's type identity.
	www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au /tgelder/papers/DRNS.html (3663 words)

	Representation
		I suggested at the outset that the historical event of the constitution of linguistics as a science may well have had a transcendental signification, and that, for that reason, the linguistic structuring of the language object functioned and ought to function as a model for the other human sciences.
		By the same token, the linguistics that studies it is at once the model for all semiology, even though language is a particular system, and its foundation, by virtue of the irreversible semiotic relation of interpretation that connects it with all the other systems.
		When Saussure seeks to define the object of linguistics and to delimit and define linguistics itself in the process, he describes the speaking‑circuit between two persons, that is, the operation of exchange between the sending of a message and a potentiality for comprehension.
	www.wordtrade.com /philosophy/representation.htm (1290 words)

	Putnam's Model Theoretic Argument
		A representational system can be used to represent one set of objects just as easily as another as long as both sets have the same formal structure as the set of objects that is taken to be the symbol system.
		Putnam's use of these results shows that the attempt to make language the representation which can come alive and to see all cognitive representation as linguistic will be a failure in the same way that the attempt to make ideas represent in virtue of their phenomenological character or causal origin was a failure.
		Representations intrinsically refer to objects because they were used in the construction of those objects, the objects being themselves internal to the representational system.
	www.anselm.edu /homepage/dbanach/PutnamsModelTheoreticArgument.htm (2861 words)

	Esl Proofreading Symbol
		Symbolic mathematics - Symbolic mathematics, or symbolic math, relates to the use of computers to manipulate mathematical equations and expressions in symbolic form, as opposed to manipulating the approximations of specific numerical quantities represented by those symbols.
		Symbolic linguistic representation - A symbolic linguistic representation is a representation of an utterance that uses symbols to represent linguistic information about the utterance, such as information about phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, or semantics.
		Symbolic linguistic representations are different from non-symbolic representations, such as recordings, because they use symbols to represent linguistic information rather than measurements.
	www.mtogdensci.com /eslproofreadingsymbol.html (767 words)

	Foodie's Corner
		To symbolic anthropologists, culture is comprised of a system of symbols and assigned meanings shared by a common group of people (Dogin et al 1977:3).
		It is this process of signification, assigning meanings to symbols, that, while dependent on a culturally specific symbolic code that was premised on a shared cultural system of meaning (Des Chene 1996:1274), influenced the social-organizational processes of a culture and that culture's formulated reality.
		Cultural ecologists and cultural materialists have attacked symbolic approaches for their lack of empirically driven theorizing, objecting specifically to the interpretive and constructed nature of food and its symbolic texts, which reflect more a theorist's whimsy than reality.
	groups.msn.com /FoodiesCorner/symbolicanthro.msnw (2342 words)

	Speech Timing and Linguistic Theory - Port and Leary
		Linguists tend to assume that the temporal layout of speech is a property that is imposed on language from the outside at the point where the logically static and serially ordered structures of the language itself are performed by the human body.
		Although linguists, for example, assume the uniformly symbolic nature of language – at all levels from phonetic segments, to phonological units, morphemes, words, phrases and sentences – less attention has been paid to what properties a symbol token must exhibit.
		The symbol tokens in language (and probably in general cognition) are the words and sound components of a particular language.
	www.cs.indiana.edu /~port/pap/paris.july05.submtd.htm (9338 words)

	Language and Mind. Noam Chomsky (1968) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-19)
		Thus, mathematical linguistics seems for the moment to be in a uniquely favourable position, among mathematical approaches in the social and psychological sciences, to develop not simply as a theory of data, but as the study of highly abstract principles and structures that determine the character of human mental processes.
		Anthropological studies (like structural linguistic studies in general) do not attempt to reveal the underlying core of generative processes in language – that is, the processes that determine the deeper levels of structure and that constitute the systematic means for creating ever novel sentence types.
		The primary symbolic systems to which he refers are “rudimentary-prelinguistic symbolic systems in which gestures and sensory and perceptual occurrences of all sorts function as signs.” But evidently these prelinguistic symbolic systems cannot be “used for giving explanation and instruction” in the way a first language can be used in second-language instruction.
	www.marxists.org /reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/chomsky.htm (10164 words)

	Mental Representation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
		In philosophy, recent debates about mental representation have centered around the existence of propositional attitudes (beliefs, desires, etc.) and the determination of their contents (how they come to be about what they are about), and the existence of phenomenal properties and their relation to the content of thought and perceptual experience.
		According to Kosslyn (1980, 1982, 1983), a mental representation is "quasi-pictorial" when every part of the representation corresponds to a part of the object represented, and relative distances between parts of the object represented are preserved among the parts of the representation.
		As in the case of symbolic languages, including natural languages (though Fodor does not suppose either that the LOTH explains only linguistic capacities or that only verbal creatures have this sort of cognitive architecture), these properties of thought are explained by appeal to the content of the representational units and their combinability into contentful complexes.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/mental-representation (7862 words)

	Ph.D. Thesis - Introduction
		Symbolic reasoning is preferred for many tasks because, in general, people relate better to reasoning based on alphanumeric symbols.
		With symbolic reasoning the various robustness requirements can be implemented in a hierarchical structure and tradeoffs between requirements can be made at a symbolic level.
		Fuzzy linguistic models hold the promise of providing a finite qualitative partition of a quantitative dynamic system while being applicable to any system that can be described in linguistic terms.
	www.cs.dartmouth.edu /~spl/publications/thesis/ThesisIntro.html (6300 words)

	Words and Rules, by Steven Pinker
		To separate morphology from phonology (the low-level representation of words as sequences of sounds), he cites the example of mispronunciations such as `froos' from `fruits' where the omission of the morpheme represented by `t' causes a predictable, phonologically based change in the voicing of the `s'.
		Symbolic processing is the bread and butter of artificial intelligence, and, so its skeptics claim, the reason that artificial intelligence has never been able to mimic the generality and flexibility of biological intelligence.
		The alternative to rationalist symbolic processing, in which every operation is the application of a rule, is empiricist connectionism, in which every operation is a generalization from remembered examples.
	www.mattababy.org /~belmonte/Publications/Reviews/99_pinker.html (1441 words)

	11.1 Overview
		It even seemed that every increase in linguistic coverage was accompanied by a loss of efficiency since efficient processing methods for linguistic representation formalisms are still missing.
		Linguistic investigation of linguistic competence and cognitive modelling of human language processing have not yet achieved a sufficient understanding and formalization of the mapping from the language signal to the informational contents of the utterance or vice versa.
		If one cannot get access to the human linguistic competence through standard methods of linguistic research, it may be possible to induce the knowledge necessary for a specific application indirectly by correlating linguistic data with the desired outputs of the machine.
	cslu.cse.ogi.edu /HLTsurvey/ch11node3.html (2015 words)

	Developing Intelligence: Generalization and Symbolic Processing in Neural Networks
		These include the use of distributed representations, self-organizing and error-driven learning (equivalent to contrastive hebbian learning), reinforcement learning (via the temporal differences algorithm), lateral inhibition (via k-winners-take-all), and a biologically-plausible activation function based on known properties of ionic diffusion across the neural cell membranes (via Leabra's point-neuron activation function).
		In particular, it had developed abstract representations of feature dimensions, such that each unit in the PFC seemed to code for an entire set of stimulus dimensions, such as "shape," or "color." This is the first time (to my knowledge) that such abstract, symbol-like representations have been observed to self-organize within a neural network.
		Symbolic representations are easy to develop from symbolic inputs.
	develintel.blogspot.com /2006/10/generalization-and-symbolic-processing.html (1224 words)

	Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning
		Representations change from sensorimotor and analog in the lower layers to symbolic and arbitrary in the upper layers.
		These representations are sensorimotor in character but are used intentionally, often but not necessarily for the purpose of communication, especially the communication of emotions (e.g., body language).
		Conversely, the higher layers of representation that characterize the modern adult human mind do not exist in a symbolic vacuum but are based on the sensorimotor substratum that humans share with other forms of animal life.
	www.fathom.com /feature/122109 (1336 words)

	Journal of American Indian Education-Arizona State University
		It would appear difficult problems are more amenable to verbal (symbolic representation) solutions but that some, nevertheless, can be solved by representation by images-sometimes even more readily.
		Complexity levels of problems may be more readily solved by representation through images, and others may be amenable to solution by verbal or symbolic representation which facilitates syntactic manipulation.
		This may lend support to the notion (fiat, even though problems can be solved by a more rudimentary mode of representation, there is a level at which it is expeditious to switch to symbolic or linguistic representation, and, conversely, representation by images is more efficient at simpler levels.
	jaie.asu.edu /v4/V4S2prob2.html (1112 words)

	FILE \| FESTIVAL INTERNACIONAL DE LINGUAGEM ELETRÔNICA :: FILE SCRIPT/// REVISTA DIGITAL (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-19)
		These symbols carried both the information (data) that was to be operated upon and the rules (instructions) for those operations.
		It is a machine that is formed with language (symbolically) and which operates as a semiosis, perhaps sometimes as a form of poesis, on language.
		If the sublime is beyond representation then perhaps the best the artist can achieve is to invoke in their audience the sense of loss they feel when they seek, and fail, to identify and represent their subject.
	www.file.org.br /news.php?news_id=67&lang=en (1272 words)

	LOGO as a Programming Language for Educational Applications
		In enactive representation the significance of a stimulus is in the motor reaction it produces.
		Symbols such as FD 50 RT 90 are processed by the left brain (or if they are processed by the right brain, are processed as pictures rather than symbols).
		The learner inputs a symbolic string at the keyboard, and observes a moving turtle tracing geometric forms on a screen.
	www.siue.edu /~jandris/HTMLDocuments/ANDRIS/logo.html (1407 words)

	What makes representations picture-like?
		Let our picture-like representation be based on the idea that the representation will be a row of letters on a line from left to right, so that a letter being to the left of another represents the fact that the represented blocks are in the left of relation.
		Suppose we have a representation of the fact that A is larger than B and a representation of the fact that C is below D. The closure condition does not require that we have representations that tell us whether or not A is below B, or C is larger than D, but this property does.
		It is a property a representational system might have, relative to some category of properties, that if it represents an object as having a determinable property then it represents that object as having some determinate value of it.
	www-csli.stanford.edu /~john/disabilities/stassiv/node3.html (3175 words)

	More on Speech Synthesis
		Most TTS systems do not generate semantic representations of their input texts, as processes for doing so are not reliable, well-understood, or computationally effective.
		Speech synthesis systems use two basic approaches to determine the pronunciation of a word based on its spelling, a process which is often called text-to-phoneme or grapheme-to-phoneme conversion, as phoneme is the term used by linguists to describe distinctive sounds in a language.
		The simplest approach to text-to-phoneme conversion is the dictionary-based approach, where a large dictionary containing all the words of a language and their correct pronunciation is stored by the program.
	www.artilifes.com /speech-synthesis.htm (2710 words)

	Symbolic Systems Program
		Because computer systems, robots, and people are all examples of symbolic systems, agents that use meaningful symbols to represent the world around them so as to communicate and generally act in the world.
		The notions of symbol, meaning, representation, information, and action are at the heart of the study of symbolic systems.
		The Symbolic Systems Program offers students the opportunity to focus on these issues in their course of studies.
	symsys.stanford.edu /ssp_static?page=ssp-description/expl1.html (678 words)

	Discussion/Conclusion
		Thus the symbols and symbolic expressions are a compact and useful way of describing the behavior of the connectionist system.
		It may be the case that the linguistic representation is necessarily sparse because that is the key to making a simple, efficient, one-shot learning algorithm.
		Thus sparseness of the representation, and the attendant possibility of symbolic description, is just a consequence of the fact that human language is learnable and understandable by mechanisms that are evolvable and implementable in realistic biological systems.
	www.swiss.ai.mit.edu /projects/speech/node13.html (935 words)

	Clancey Chapter 9
		Grammar is not a distinct level of linguistic representation, but reduces instead to the structuring and symbolization of conceptual content...
		Lexicon, morphology, and syntax form a continuum of symbolic units, divided only arbitrarily into separate "components"---it is ultimately as pointless to analyze grammatical units without reference to their semantic value as it is to write a dictionary which omits the meanings of its lexical units.
		all linguistic patterns derive from (i) semantic, phonological and symbolic structures that occur overtly in linguistic expressions; or, (ii) structures that are schematic for us in (i); and (iii) categorizing relationships involving the structures in (i) and (ii).
	ccat.sas.upenn.edu /~haroldfs/pedagog/clancey9.html (1695 words)

	Whit Tabor's Research Projects
		The central interest of this approach is that it portrays a set of relationships between structured systems which are hard to discern in traditional symbolic formalisms.
		I am interested in the relationship between systems (like generative grammars) that are highly structured, that make absolute claims, and that achieve great mileage by using a calculus of symbols, and systems (like physical dynamical systems) that are flexible, that make only relative claims, and that lend themselves to analysis using continuous-variable math.
		By modeling syntactic parse structures as attractors, we were able to account not only for their predominant ability to ``capture'' linguistic behavior but also their marginal ability to influence it.
	www.sp.uconn.edu /~ps300vc/projects.html (1281 words)

	Ruth Ronen - The Real as Limit to Interpretation
		The link between the Real, the symbolic and the imaginary, the three Lacanian orders, is what produces an object, expressed in Lacanian terminology as the object a.The objet a, in its relation to the Real and dependence on language, is presented as an impossibility which is yet essential to the very order of the symbolic.
		Yet in psychoanalysis every symbolic structure is seen as structured around a void which in is in fact a particular object impossible to be known.
		What disrupts symbolization in this case are not methods of structuring language (according to logocentric presuppositions) but the surplus of the Real that escapes symbolization, which is why the object of psychoanalysis is seen as a product and not an effect of discourse.
	www.tau.ac.il /~rronen/documents/interpret.html (5275 words)

	René Descartes
		Questions of the appropriate forms of scientific symbolism and discourse were seen as closely connected to questions about the construction of the new apparatuses of the modern state.
		We inherently trust that these symbolic manipulations will always give results which are compatible with geometry; a trust that did not fully emerge in mathematics until the early works of Euler more than a century after Descartes.
		In order to appreciate the accomplishments of Descartes one must be able to check back and forth between representations and see that the results of symbolic algebraic manipulations are consistent with independently established geometrical results.
	www.oswego.edu /multi-campus-nsf/descartes1.htm (2329 words)

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