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Topic: The Extended Phenotype

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Richard Dawkins

Phenotype

Segregation distortion

Teleological argument

Junk DNA

Evolutionarily stable strategy

Matt Salinger

	The Extended Phenotype - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene is a 1982 book by British ethologist Richard Dawkins.
		An animal's behaviour tends to maximise the survival of the genes 'for' that behaviour, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing it.
		Dawkins considers the concept of the Extended Phenotype to be his principle contribution to evolutionary theory.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/The_Extended_Phenotype (371 words)

	Phenotype - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The phenotype of an individual organism is either its total physical appearance and constitution or a specific manifestation of a trait, such as size, eye color, or behavior that varies between individuals.
		Phenotype is determined to some extent by genotype, or by the identity of the alleles that an individual carries at one or more positions on the chromosomes.
		A phenotype is any detectable characteristic of an organism (i.e., structural, biochemical, physiological and behavioral) determined by an interaction between its genotype and environment (see genotype-phenotype distinction and phenotypic plasticity for a further elaboration of this distinction).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Phenotype (305 words)

	The Extended Phenotype
		The conventional phenotype is a special case in which the effects are regarded as being confined to the individual body in which the gene sits.
		In practice it is convenient to limit 'extended phenotype' to cases where the effects influence the survival chances of the gene, positively or negatively.
		The extended phenotype may not constitute a testable hypothesis in itself, but it so far changes the way we see animals and plants that it may cause us to think of testable hypotheses that we would otherwise never have dreamed of.
	www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk /dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Books/extend.shtml (1480 words)

	AI and the Notion of Progress (Part 1): The Extended Phenotype - Artificial Intelligence - 06/14/98
		The phenotype is the definition or classification of an organism or group of organisms with reference not merely to its genetic characteristics (the genotype) but to physical characteristics or properties produced through the interaction of the genotype with the environment as the organism develops through adulthood.
		Examples of extended phenotypic effects include the beaver dam (including how tall the dam is) and the lake that results from the damming of the stream (including how large that lake shall be), and the termite mound (including the size of the mound).
		For example, there is evidence that the thickness of the shell of some snail species may be an extended phenotypic expression not of the snail’s own genes, but of the genes of a parasitic microbe for which the snail is the parasite’s external environment.
	www.mikiko.net /library/weekly/1998articles/aa061498.htm (731 words)

	Social Structure
		Besides our physical phenotype, humans have a very large extended phenotype, culture, which is the knowledge associated with human social groups and whose properties are linked to human social structure.
		Phenotypic heterogeneity means that a group of humans will have members who display a range of different skills and are naturally fitted to a variety of different roles.
		In sum, humans are phenotypically heterogeneous and this heterogeneity is an adaptation to the needs of the social groups that are associated with social knowledge.
	www.sexandphilosophy.co.uk /soc_struct.htm (2990 words)

	Phenotype - Biocrawler (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The phenotype of an individual organism is either its total physical appearance and constitution, or a specific manifestation of a trait, such as size or eye color, that varies between individuals.
		A phenotype is any detectable characteristic of an organism (i.e.
		structural, biochemical, physiological and behavioral) determined by an interaction between its genotype and environment (see genotype-phenotype distinction and phenotypic plasticity for a further elaboration of this distinction).
	www.biocrawler.com /encyclopedia/Phenotype (301 words)

	[ Comparing the Cathedrals of Liverpool with the aid of the Extended Phenotype ]
		I have been influenced by the ideas of Richard Dawkins’ theories on extended phenotypes and Marshall McLuhans’ on the extensions of man. Both of these imply that we, as humans, create extensions of ourselves (or phenotypes) that are able to evolve separately from ourselves.
		In the Extended Phenotype (1982), Richard Dawkins outlines his theory that genes are the unit of replication, and therefore implies the obliteration of the individual as the unit of natural selection.
		The theory of the extended phenotype states that 'An animals behaviour tends to maximise the survival of the genes 'for' that behaviour, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing the behaviour' (Dawkins, 1982, p248).
	www.phenotype.net /cathedrals/dissy1.html (10169 words)

	GENETIC OMNI-DOMINANCE: THE GOD HYPOTHESIS
		This incursion of coevolved species displacing indigenous species is a form of extended genetic dominance in the sense that the co-evolved species is suppressing the expression of the phenotypes of the indigenous subspecies and allowing the phenotypes of the nonindigenous sub/species to dominate.
		In the previous chapter we took the small further step of extending the phenotype to artifacts, built by individual behavior which is subject to genetic variation, for instance caddis houses.
		The gene's extended phenotypic effect, say an increase in the height of the dam, affects its chances of survival in precisely the same sense as in the case of a gene with normal phenotypic effect, such as an increase in the length of the tail.
	www.geocities.com /jim_bowery/god.html (8152 words)

	The Apian Way
		If you've had college biology you know the drill: the genotype comprises the set of genes in an organism, the phenotype is its physical manifestation and the environment serves as a kind of Grand Inquisitor, sitting in judgment on the small phenotypic (and therefore genotypic) differences among individuals in a population.
		The key to the evolution of organisms is therefore not to be found in the genotype, the phenotype or the environment; it is in the integration of all, the biology of holism.
		The title of ''The Extended Organism'' signals that Turner's book builds on Richard Dawkins's 1982 work ''The Extended Phenotype.'' Where Dawkins sought to show the action of genes outside the body, Turner's focus is ''external physiology.'' But the book is far more than a complement to Dawkins.
	partners.nytimes.com /books/00/12/10/reviews/001210.10schwent.html (979 words)

	Cafe Hayek: Markets: An Extended Phenotype (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		According to dictionary.com, a phenotype is "The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences." Or, as Dawkins puts it in his just-released The Ancestor’s Tale, "A ‘phenotype’ is that which is influenced by genes."
		Through natural selection, genes ‘fashion’ organisms' phenotypes to maximize their (the genes’) prospects for survival and for being passed on to future generations of organisms that carry the genes creating particular phenotypes.
		Therefore, bird nests are an extended phenotype of birds.
	cafehayek.typepad.com /hayek/2005/02/markets_an_exte.html (605 words)

	Alibris: Phenotype
		The thesis of this look at the evolution of life and natural selection is that individual organisms are replicators that have extended phenotypic effects on the world at large, thus our genes have the ability to manipulate other individuals.
		Phenotypic integration--or, how large numbers of characteristics are related to make up the whole organism, and how these relationships evolve and change their function--is a major growth area in research, attracting the attention of...
		Phenotypic plasticity is the range and process of variation in body plan and physiology.
	www.alibris.com /search/books/subject/Phenotype (925 words)

	Compare Prices and Read Reviews on The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene at Epinions.com
		He offers a new view of how genes exert their influence (phenotype is how a gene expresses itself, for example by giving a person blue eyes or curly hair).
		He argues that the phenotype can extend into all sorts of areas that are not traditionally considered to be part of the gene's sphere of influence.
		He is truly putting forward a theory of an "Extended Phenotype"; the influence of our genes is subtle and far-reaching; moreso than is taught in orthodox biology.
	www.epinions.com /content_141859524228 (759 words)

	Cottonwood Ecology FIBR Grant
		Biodiversity is an emergent property of extended phenotypes.
		Central to our proposed studies is the concept of the “extended phenotype.” Our studies show that mapped genes of a dominant tree produce extended phenotypes in the community and ecosystem, often mediated through plant chemistry.
		Broader Impacts: Extended phenotypes have major implications for establishing the genetic foundations of communities and ecosystems, for quantifying the impacts of genetically modified organisms on the rest of the community, and for making informed decisions about environmental policy and management.
	herb.bio.nau.edu /poplar/fibr.htm (1387 words)

	Maladaptive Altruism: Western Culture in Eugenics Decline. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		It is changes at the single nucleotide level that are responsible for evolutionarily significant phenotypic changes, although of course the unvarying remainder of the genome is necessary to produce a phenotype at all.
		Such an insistence that phenotypes are not caused by genes, but only phenotypic differences caused by gene differences may seem to weaken the concept of genetic determination to the point where it ceases to be interesting.
		I have amended this to a new central theorem of the extended phenotype: An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing the behavior.
	home.comcast.net /~neoeugenics/host.htm (8669 words)

	TOQ-Louis R. Browning-Bioculture-Vol 4 No 1 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Because the child's genotype influences both the phenotype and the rearing environment, their correlation is a function of the genotype. The genotype is conceptually prior to both the phenotype and the rearing environment.
		Thus canalization and extended phenotype are two sides of the same coin, and issues that apply to the one concept can inform us about the other.
		We must acknowledge and recognize that human population groups are biocultural entities. Genes not only create the physical phenotype, but the culture as well, as the extended phenotype.
	theoccidentalquarterly.com /vol4no1/lrb-bioculture.html (999 words)

	Richard Dawkins: The Extended Pheonotype
		As long as genes exert phenotypic effects only on their 'own' bodies, whole bodies can indeed be thought of as units working towards a single end.
		But if genes in one animal could exert phenotypic effects outside that animal, even effects on the body of another animal, we would have to revolutionize our views of adaptation.
		In later chapters of The Extended Phenotype, Richard Dawkins shows that some such revolution is indeed logically necessary, since genes can be said to have extended phenotypes outsing the body in which they sit.
	www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk /dawkins/writings/extendedphenotype.shtml (1808 words)

	urticator.net - The Extended Phenotype (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Dawkins' idea of the extended phenotype is explained in his book of the same name, The Extended Phenotype.
		The phenotypic effects of a gene are normally seen as all the effects that it has on the body in which it sits.
		But we shall now see that the phenotypic effects of a gene need to be thought of as all the effects that it has on the world.
	www.urticator.net /essay/1/136.html (311 words)

	The Living Polymorphic Virus
		Specifically, it (a) examines the virus’s genotypic and phenotypic properties along with its innate propensity for self-reproduction; (b) juxtaposes its differential self-mutation and replication with “genetic selection”, a process complementary to Darwin’s theory of stepwise evolution by natural selection; and (c) considers the aggregate behavior of polymorphic computer viruses as characteristic of genuine life.
		That is, the genotype is any “set of low-level rules”, and the phenotype is the “behaviors and or structures that emerge out of the interactions among these low-level rules” (Langton, 1987).
		This results in genotypic and (extended) phenotypic variation that in turn, engenders disparate survival rates among offspring.
	www.stanford.edu /class/sts129/essays/waddell1.htm (2237 words)

	Richard Dawkins - outline biography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		In biology, an organisms genetic inheritance is referred to as its genotype whilst its physical appearance is referred to as its phenotype.
		Dawkins further extended his "extended phenotype" concept to look far beyond individual and artifact towards a more comprehensive view that could encompass the family of the organism, its social group, and any tools and environments created by the individual or the group.
		Very many such phenomena can be held to be physical manifestations inspired as evolutionarily beneficial aspects of extended phenotype by the genetically transmitted replicating code.
	www.age-of-the-sage.org /scientist/richard_dawkins.html (755 words)

	The Third Culture - Chapter 3
		It can be the length of any number of cistrons — technically not one gene, but it would be one gene for my purposes if, say, once it gets together as a cluster it tends to go on for a large number of generations and is therefore available for natural selection to work on.
		Extended phenotypes are things like birds' nests, or bower-bird bowers.
		The bower is a phenotypic effect of genes.
	www.edge.org /documents/ThirdCulture/j-Ch.3.html (7621 words)

	Learn more about Phenotype in the online encyclopedia. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Learn more about Phenotype in the online encyclopedia.
		Phenotype is determined in large part by genotype, or by the identity of the alleles that an individual carries at one or more positions on the chromosomes.
		The idea of the phenotype as the product of the genotype has been generalised by Richard Dawkins in his book The Extended Phenotype.
	www.onlineencyclopedia.org /p/ph/phenotype.html (260 words)

	Replicating Sonorities: Towards a Memetics of Music
		While the phenotypic effects of the gene are both somatic and extrasomatic, the phemotypic effects of the meme are, as noted, almost entirely extrasomatic; and it is in the nature of the meme that one cannot usefully distinguish between its phemotype and its extended phemotype.
		The freezing of the work by its extended phemotype should not blind us to the fact that the memes that constitute it merely used it as a means of furthering their replication.
		It is logical to extend the hierarchic perspective adopted in discussion of the relatively circumscribed examples of Section 6.1 to the complex, large-scale patterns which composers repeatedly employ as the overarching structural framework of their compositions.
	jom-emit.cfpm.org /2000/vol4/jan_s.html (13897 words)

	The Extended Organism (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		I then discuss two physiological systems, one a “traditional” physiological system (operation of the kidneys of a freshwater fish), and an “extended” physiological function (deposition of calcium carbonate by reef-building corals) where the boundary between inside and outside the organism is not as clear.
		One of the curious architectural features of these coccoons is a long silken ribbon that extends into the water, and which acts as an “oxygen sponge” to draw oxygen into the coccoon.
		I assert that the high performance is the result of a feedback loop that extends outside the body of the cricket that enables the male to “tune” its burrow as the high performance structure it is.
	www.esf.edu /efb/turner/pubs/btedesc.htm (2926 words)

	Johns Hopkins University: Hematology eDigest
		To be fair, while sickle cell anemia is a monogenic disorder, its clinical phenotype is distinctly multifarious due in part to the epistatic effects of concomitantly inherited linked and unlinked genes, and in part, to the multi-organ damage inflicted on the host by the sickling process.
		Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge the progressive increase in longevity of patients with this disorder, owing to effective immunization, infection control, and the recognition and prompt treatment of complications such as the acute chest syndrome.
		Extended phenotype matching has the benefit of preventing alloimmunization and its attendant morbidity, mortality and hospital costs.
	www.hopkinscme.net /ofp/hematologyedigest/newsletter/detail_063005.htm (2449 words)

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