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Topic: Turkic states and empires

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Turkic peoples

Turks

Turkic languages

Bulghars

Ethnic groups in Chinese history

13th century BCE

Volga Bulgaria

Turkic

Golden Horde

Ottoman Empire

Khazars

Gokturks

History of the Ottoman Empire

Byzantine Empire

Cuman language

	Turks. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
		The Avars were probably Turkic; they and the Magyars certainly had adopted the Turkic tribal organization when they appeared in Europe, and many Magyar words are of Turkic origin.
		The northern empire regained its independence in 682, and the oldest known Turkic inscriptions (see under Orkhon) are related to it.
		The Turko-Tatars now living in the nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States are largely descended from the Golden Horde of Batu Khan, as are the Uzbeks (see Uzbekistan), who ruled a vast empire in the 16th cent.
	www.bartleby.com /65/tu/Turks.html (901 words)

	Empires
		Age of Empires Age of Empires (AoE) is a civilization.
		Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings Age of Kings is a Microsoft.
		Horizons: Empires of Istaria Horizons: Empires of Istaria is a 2003.
	www.brainyencyclopedia.com /topics/empires.html (143 words)

	Turkic peoples (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The English term "Turkic" is nowadays mainly used to describe the languages and peoples of the whole area while the term "Turkish" is commonly seen as referring to the peoples and language of modern Turkey and some of the ethnically and culturally particularly close peoples and ethnic minorities in surrounding countries.
		Turkic soldiers in the army of the Abbasid caliphs emerged as de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (except Syria and Egypt), particularly after the 10th century.
		The Ottoman Empire grew weaker in the face of repeated wars with Russia and Austria and the emergence of nationalist movements in the Balkans, and finally gave way after World War I to the present-day republic of Turkey.
	www.sciencedaily.com /encyclopedia/turkic_peoples (1448 words)

	WakkaWiki.com
		The Turkic languages stem from the Altaic language group and the Turkic language branch is one of the most geographically widespread in the world, spanning from Europe to Siberia.
		He further asserts that ancient Turkic (or Kypçak) people made an empire that was the biggest in the ancient world, bigger than Greek and Roman empires - from the Black Sea on the west to China on the east, and from the Ural mountains on the north to India in the south.
		Turkic soldiers in the army of the Abbasid caliphs emerged as the de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (apart from Syria and Egypt), particularly after the 10th century.
	www.wakkawiki.com /index.php?title=Turks (3208 words)

	Golden, World of the Steppes
		Turkic society, until very recent times, was, with the exception of the Ottoman Empire, Azarbayjan, the Middle Volga and the oasis cultures of Turkistan, largely tribal.
		The generation of nomadic states is still not fillly understood, largely because we have few documents coming from within the nomadic world that describe the goals of the state-builders.
		The original Turkic physical type, if we can really posit such, for it should be borne in mind that this mobile population was intermixing with its neighbors at a very early stage, was probably of the Mongoloid type (in all likelihood in its South Siberian variant).
	coursesa.matrix.msu.edu /~fisher/hst373/readings/golden.html (5170 words)

	CalendarHome.com - - Calendar Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		He aspired to restore the Mongol Empire, yet his heaviest blow was against the Mongol Golden Horde, which never recovered from his campaign against Tokhtamysh.
		Timur's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority.
		Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo's embassy, states that his body "was embalmed with musk and rose water, wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried." His tomb, the Gur-e Amir, still stands in Samarkand.
	encyclopedia.calendarhome.com /cgi-bin/encyclopedia.pl?p=Tamerlane (3389 words)

	Great Steppe Empires of Asia
		The Turkic culture and languages are believed to have originated in the 5th century BC around the upper Ienissei river in today's Siberia.
		Turkic speaking tribes migrated from that area westward to the steppes north of the Aral and Balkash lakes where they gave rise to the Huns who later gained control of the plains between the Ural and the Carpathian mountains from the resident indo-European tribes in the 4th century AD.
		Timur, a Turkic vassal of the Chaghatai Mongols in Transoxiana overcame his masters and became the scourge of Central Asia known in the west as Tamerlane.
	berclo.net /page97/97en-steppe-empires.html (2064 words)

	homepage\Non Arab-North
		Both the British and Russian Empires vied for influence in the area, and in the 19th century Afghanistan was taken from Iran by Britain.
		Osman I, the ruler in northwestern Anatolia, is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman states.
		Later ruler, notably, Suleiman the Magnificent, expanded the boundaries of the empire in the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Europe.
	www.list.org /~mdoyle/NonArab.html (1593 words)

	1483 Online. Ottoman Empire
		According to tradition, it was in 1299—when the Seljukid state was in the process of collapse— that Osman I declared independence for the Ottoman state, which had gradually been developed by a group of now-settled Oghuz.
		During this period, the various states of Anatolia came into conflict with one another, with the Ottoman state eventually emerging as the supreme power in the region.
		Though the Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the empire, as he named it and was the first bey (chieftain) to declare his independence.
	www.1483online.com /histories/ottomans.php (680 words)

	The Communitarian Network
		While they long served to destroy empires and force governments to be more responsive to the governed, with rare exceptions self-determination movements now undermine the potential for democratic development in nondemocratic countries and threaten the foundations of democracy in the democratic ones.
		For example, in the failed break-away state of Biafra in Nigeria, the population was composed of several ethnic groups, most notably the Ibibio, Efik and Ijaw.
		This polarization is heightened by the great intolerance break-away states tend to have for minority ethnic groups composed of people who were in the majority or in power in the country they broke away from.
	www.gwu.edu /~ccps/etzioni/A227.html (4252 words)

	Ataturk.com - the Turkic World
		It was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, then it was the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
		Then I deal with the authoritarian nature of Turkic states, their love of strong leaders, the inheritance of Ataturk, the mad tyranny of Turkmenbashi [Saparmyrat Nyýazow] in Turkmenistan, and the new but flawed success of the ruler of Kazakhstan.
		Turkey is a territorial state with a Turkic population.
	www.ataturk.com /content/view/44/80 (5607 words)

	Iraq Museum International Open Encyclopedia: Iran (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Iran traces its national origin to Persia, an empire that emerged in the 6th century BC under the Achaemenid dynasty.
		Iran is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of Humanity".
		The economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.
	www.baghdadmuseum.org /ref/index.php?title=Iran (2649 words)

	CIA - The World Factbook -- Field Listing - Background (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's status remained unclear for a decade.
		Failure by member states to ratify the constitution or the inability of newcomer countries to meet euro currency standards might force a loosening of some EU agreements and perhaps lead to several levels of EU participation.
		Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a League of Nations mandate under UK administration.
	www.phatnav.com /factbook/fields/2028.html (16146 words)

	Chinese History - The Non-Chinese peoples and states of the northeast (www.chinaknowledge.org) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		From 1132 on both empires stood under the domination of the Western Liao empire that was founded by a descendant of the Khitan Liao Dynasty.
		In the last decades of the Warring States period æ°å, the belligerent tribes of the Qiang (or Jiang-Rong å§æ) were defeated by the state of Qin ç§¦ that installed the first Chinese commanderies (jun é¡) of the west.
		In 663 the Tibetian empire of Tubo destroyed the capital Fuqi ä¼ä¿ (west of Qinghai Lake é’æµ·æ¹—), the Tuyuhun escaped to the north and were resettled by the Tang government in the area of modern Ninghai and northern Shaanxi.
	www.chinaknowledge.de /History/Altera/steppe.html (4390 words)

	UNDER THE SIGN OF ANDIJAN Central Asia Divided by the Russians, the Chinese, and the Arabs (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Turkic culture: It is one of the traditional ones for Central Asia.
		Besides, among the Turkic states of the region, Uzbekistan is leading from the point of view of the practice of national language, and on the pace of the revival of Turkic culture.
		It was violently enrooted by the authorities of the Russian and Soviet Empires.
	www.axisglobe.com /article.asp?article=529 (3203 words)

	King Bulan's Turkic Bookstore: History and Culture (books about Central Asia, Turkey, Turks, Kazakhstan)
		Allworth states in his new introductory chapter that this work does not claim to be a "purveyor of the latest news from the Crimea" rather it is a nuanced effort to understand this people's unique history and character.
		By focusing on a region of the Qing empire beyond the borders of China proper, and by treating the empire not as a Chinese dynasty but in its broader context as an Inner Asian political entity, this innovative study fills a gap in Western-language historiography of late imperial China.
		The Ottoman Empire draws from a wealth of multi-lingual sources, many of which are previously untranslated, and presents a fresh view on one of the most important, yet misunderstood, empires of the pre-modern age.
	www.khazaria.com /turkic/books1.html (4708 words)

	Turkic
		Turkic languages Edit this box The 'Turkic languages'\ are a group of closely related languages that are spoken by a var...
		Turkic peoples The neutrality and factual accuracy of this article are disputed.
		The Turkic people are any of various pe...
	www.brainyencyclopedia.com /topics/turkic.html (84 words)

	Turkish States in History - All About Turkey
		Their economy was based on shepherding and stockbreeding, especially sheep and horse, latter having a great importance in the Turkish social and cultural life.
		There were 16 Turkish States in the history, before the foundation of Republic of Turkey.
		The rulers of these States were called mainly as Tarkan, Tanhu, Kagan (Kaan), Han (Khan), Yangu, Bey, Shah, Sultan, and so on.
	www.allaboutturkey.com /states.htm (645 words)

	STATE-NATION
		Feudal States, in their backward economic relations, were unable to be national States and could evolve so only when capitalism, with its markets, commerce, towns, money, written records, and corresponding development of the circulation and production of commodities, could unify the country.
		States that adhere to the principle of jus sanquinis, say Italy, will at the same time admit that the child of Italian parents born in the United States and having citizenship there owes allegiance to the United States, regardless of Italian policy.
		State capitalism was a national capitalism, a capitalism not of classes but of a unified nation acting as one for its own welfare and its welfare only.
	www.weisbord.org /State.htm (9085 words)

	Nations and States
		By 2100, the organizing principle of the world will be the city-state, along with the urban radials of prosperity that follow major trade routes.
		Neither states nor cities by themselves provide stability; elaborate institutions of finance and tax collection, manned by responsible officials, do that.
		Political systems in 2100 will be elegantly varied, unconstrained by the sanctimony of the late 20th century, with its simple call for "democracy." The next century will be the age of high-tech feudalism.
	www.globalpolicy.org /nations/cities.htm (410 words)

	Central Asia information - Search.com
		And the United States with its military involvement in the region, and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.
		Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Tatar are related languages of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages, and are spoken throughout Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and into Afghanistan, Xinjiang and Qinghai.
		Uzbek and Uighur are spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Xinjiang.
	www.search.com /reference/Central_Asia (3095 words)

	Articles - Turkic peoples (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Throughout their history, Turks have been the most dominant of Islamic peoples and nationalities, having established various Turko-Islamic empires and civilizations, yet were also the founders of a Jewish civilization, the Khazar empire of the 7th century which was the only Jewish empire in history.
		Additionally, Turkic peoples are found within Crimea, the Xinjiang region of western China, northern Iraq, Iran, Russia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, the Balkans Moldova, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania and former Yugoslavia.
		Currently, the common understanding is to assume at least partially distict linguistic and racial heritages for the various groups, based on the multitude of invasions, wars, empires, and complex population movements in the region.
	www.sonicplayer.net /articles/Turkic_peoples (2899 words)

	About the Kurds
		As the custodians of Islam's holy cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem, the Ayyubids were instrumental in the defeat and expulsion of the Crusaders from the Holy Land.
		The advent of the Safavid and Ottoman empires in the area and their division of Kurdistan into two uneven imperial dependencies was on a par with the practice of the preceding few centuries.
		Drawing of well-guarded state boundaries dividing Kurdistan has, since 1921, afflicted Kurdish society with such a degree of fragmentation, that its impact is tearing apart the Kurds' unity as a nation.
	www.selenasol.com /selena/struggle/kurds.html (3489 words)

	Islam’s Invisible Frontier: The Muslims of Chinese-Occupied East Turkestan - Kavkazcenter.com
		That, indeed, is the greatest tragedy of Chinese-occupied East Turkestan, bounded to the east by China, the south by Tibet, and the west by Pakistan and the newly-independent Central Asian states, emerging from Russian domination.
		One of the small states that was founded by these pioneers was a principality ruled by a khan (leader) named ‘Uthman.
		At its height, the Ottoman Empire stretched from Algeria to the Caspian Sea, south to Yemen and north to Austria.
	kavkazcenter.com /eng/content/2006/11/12/6385.shtml (2702 words)

	TURKIC LITERATURE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD (Ch. 3) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The earliest extant Muslim Turkic literature, composed in the latter half of the eleventh century, seems to reflect these Türks' project of creating a literary tradition that was autonomous from the Iranians, and showing that Turkic culture was as good or better than that of the Iranians.
		Turkic authors after Kâshgharî created literature that combined Turkic language and its concepts and poetic principles of proverbial composition with Arabo-Persian rhyme schemes and generic frame and an Islamic orientation.
		He states that the vowels used in past tense endings by the Oghuz, Qipchaq, Arghu and Känchäk are all incorrect, not the same as those used by Türks (DLT 504, TTD 3:190).
	www.utoledo.edu /~nlight/dissch3.htm (14482 words)

	Islam
		Persia was eliminated for many years as an independent political or cultural force, and the revival of Romania was ended, with the Empire reduced from about 3/4 of its original extent, as restored by Justinian, to little more than 1/4, all that was left by the reign of Leo III.
		Sayf-udDawla ("Sword of the State") became a celebrated foe of Romania, but he was largely unnsuccessful against the revival of Roman power, and his son experienced devastating defeats, at one point with Aleppo and H.oms themselves falling, though retained with the payment of tribute.
		Nevertheless, what was left was the massive state of the Il Khâns, which survived until collapsing in confusion in 1338.
	www.friesian.com /islam.htm (9025 words)

	Asia Times - Asia's most trusted news source for the Middle East
		The initiative to bring the Turkic countries together was taken up by president Turgut Ozal, but unfortunately he died in 1993.
		The immigrants were settled widely throughout the empire, many in villages that had been abandoned and some in eastern Anatolia, particularly in Cilicia (Adana region) and Arab lands like Syria, sometimes leading to conflict and problems.
		The United Kingdom and the United States blatantly encouraged Islamic and obscurantist groups to counter nationalist and socialist regimes in the Middle East and elsewhere from the beginning of the 1950s to the end of the 1970s, when Iran's Shi'ite revolution unnerved everyone.
	www.atimes.com /atimes/Middle_East/EL18Ak03.html (3905 words)

	E-Notes: The Turkish Factor in the Geopolitics of the Post-Soviet Space - FPRI
		This sense of isolation, Onis contends, is crucial in understanding both the initial euphoria concerning the Turkic republics of the Caucasus and Central Asia and the subsequent development of close military and economic ties with Israel.
		Where traditionally, Turkey’s foreign policy was shaped by a narrow group of political figures, state bureaucrats, and the military’s upper echelon, the recent resurgence of Islam and nationalism in Turkish politics has broadened the circle of those concerned with foreign policy.
		The common impression that the Russian and Ottoman empires have been in a state of war most of the time is absolutely untrue, said the ambassador.
	www.fpri.org /enotes/20030110.balkansturkey.torbakov.turkeypostsovietspace.html (3461 words)

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