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Topic: Tuskegee

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	Tuskegee Syphilis Study Encyclopedia Article, Definition, History, Biography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972) was a clinical study, conducted around Tuskegee, Alabama, where 400 poor, mostly illiterate African American sharecroppers became part of a study on the treatment and natural history of syphilis.
		Individuals enrolled in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study did not give informed consent and were not informed of their diagnosis; instead they were told they had "bad blood" and could receive free treatment.
		The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is often cited as one of the greatest ethical breaches of trust between physician and patients in the setting of a clinical study in the United States.
	www.alienartifacts.com /encyclopedia/Tuskegee_syphilis_study (2341 words)

	Tuskegee University - Home
		Tuskegee University Golden Tigers have their sights set firmly on a 25th SIAC championship after a 27-14 win over the Fort Valley State Wildcats.
		More than 1,000 students, faculty and family members gathered in the Tuskegee University Chapel to watch members of the University’s elite held in esteem for their academic accomplishments during the 80th Annual Scholarship Convocation.
		Tuskegee University has just taken a giant step in an even larger world.
	www.tuskegee.edu (242 words)

	spiked-essays \| Essay \| Tuskegee re-examined
		The 'Tuskegee Study' was conducted in Macon County, Alabama between 1932 and 1972, and is often associated with the image of monstrous government researchers allowing fl patients to suffer from a curable and devastating infection (syphilis), so as to document the natural course of the disease.
		The Tuskegee study was meant to be a study of men with later stage latent syphilis, who had been infected for at least five years and were not contagious.
		One Tuskegee research report states: 'The patients [in the study] who had syphilis were all in the latent stage: any acute cases requiring treatment were carefully screened out for standard therapy.' (5) It would appear that those who were in the early stages of infection were treated.
	www.spiked-online.com /articles/0000000CA34A.htm (4886 words)

	Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
		The Tuskegee syphilis experiment, conducted by the United States Public Health Service (PHS) and the Tuskegee Institute, began in 1932 and was originally planned to last one year.
		PHS officials based the investigation in and around Tuskegee, in Macon County, Alabama, where severe poverty and insufficient medical care contributed to the highest incidence of syphilis in the South.
		Yet the Tuskegee experiment cultivated a mistrust of the public medical establishment among many African Americans, and little has been done since 1972 to remedy the problem of high syphilis rates among rural Southern fls.
	www.africana.com /research/encarta/tt_423.asp (779 words)

	The Tuskegee Airmen--Overview: Legends of Tuskegee
		She took photographs of the Tuskegee Airmen while on a mission sponsored by the U.S. government to document war conditions in Europe.
		The Tuskegee Airmen included pilots, navigators, bombardiers, maintenance and support staff, instructors, and all the personnel who kept the planes in the air.
		Tuskegee had the facilities, and engineering and technical instructors, as well as a climate for year round flying.
	www.cr.nps.gov /museum/exhibits/tuskegee/airoverview.htm (449 words)

	Tuskegee
		It was home to the Tuskegee Institute, the foremost fl college in the nation, but had few towns and was primarily populated by poor farmers, 90% of them fl.
		At various stages of the Rosenwald Fund project and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Wenger was attached to the Macon County activities, and he played a critical role in developing early study protocols.
		It is common to hear the view that a study of untreated syphilis may have been ethically acceptable in the 1930's when the only effective anti-syphilis treatment were the highly toxic arsenic and mercury compounds, but it became clearly unethical with the advent of penicillin in the 1940's.
	www.msu.edu /course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm (2249 words)

	The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee Report
		As part of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, designed to document the natural history of the disease, these men were told that they were being treated for "bad blood." In fact, government officials went to extreme lengths to insure that they received no therapy from any source.
		The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee is dedicated to preserving the memory of the Study while moving beyond it, transforming the legacy into renewed efforts to bridge the chasm between the health conditions of fl and white Americans.
		Because the Tuskegee study is a starting point for all modern moral reflection on research ethics, a meeting of the NBEAC at Tuskegee in conjunction with a Presidential apology would be an ideal new beginning.
	www.med.virginia.edu /hs-library/historical/apology/report.html (2444 words)

	Encyclopedia: Tuskegee Institute
		Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama.
		In 1941, in an effort to train fl aviators, a training squadron was established at Tuskegee Institute.
		The Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site is located on the campus, and includes the George Washington Carver Museum.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Tuskegee-Institute (298 words)

	The Tuskegee Timeline (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, carried out in Macon County, Alabama, from 1932 to 1972, is an example of medical research gone wrong.
		In the wake of the Tuskegee Study and other studies, the federal government took a closer look at research involving human subjects and made changes to prevent the moral breaches that occurred in Tuskegee from happening again.
		The advisory panel concluded that the Tuskegee Study was "ethically unjustified"--the knowledge gained was sparse when compared with the risks the study posed for its subjects.
	www.cdc.gov /nchstp/od/tuskegee/time.htm (981 words)

	Benjamin Davis, American - USA
		The Tuskegee Airmen carried with them the usual burdens borne by men about to enter combat but also the certain knowledge that upon their inexperienced shoulders rested the future of fl Americans in aviation.
		On the morning of January 27, 15 Tuskegee Airmen Curtiss P-40s met a larger number of German Fw-190 fighters, shooting down six and damaging four others--a remarkable performance considering the mismatch in aircraft.
		one of the Tuskegee Airmen was lost on this mission, but none of the bombers were lost, despite the fact that the Germans threw their latest and fastest fighters at the Americans.
	www.aviation-history.com /airmen/davis.htm (2755 words)

	Black pilots shatter myths (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The 332nd was made up of the 99th, 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter squadrons but the Tuskegee Airmen were originally part of an experiment put together by the War Department to prove the validity of the 1925 study.
		In spite of seemingly insurmountable odds and high expectations for failure, the first class of Tuskegee Airmen graduated five of 13 cadets to enter training completed the program, and by July 1942, when Carter's class graduated, the 99th FS was at full strength and ready to deploy.
		Not only were they the catalyst for integration in the armed forces but they proved once and for all, that the color of the hands on the controls has absolutely nothing to do with the skill or ability of the crew.
	history.acusd.edu /gen/WW2Timeline/HOYT/shatter.html (1274 words)

	TUSKEGEE - Online Information article about TUSKEGEE
		It is served by the Tuskegee railway, which connects it with Chehaw, 5 M. distant, on the Western railway of Alabama.
		Tuskegee is chiefly known for its educational institutions—the Tuskegee Normal and See also:
		night schools are carried on by the institute in the town of Tuskegee.
	encyclopedia.jrank.org /TUM_VAN/TUSKEGEE.html (817 words)

	ADAH: Alabama Moments (The Tuskegee Airmen--Quick Summary) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Tuskegee Airmen refers to African Americans who served in segregated flying units in World War II.
		Tuskegee Airmen faced racial tensions and discrimination while serving.
		Combat record of Tuskegee Airmen an important factor in their decision.
	www.alabamamoments.state.al.us /sec52qs.html (260 words)

	On behalf of nation, an apology
		The Tuskegee, Ala., incident is a symbol for African-Americans nationwide of government betrayal.
		The men were never told they were part of a study, clinically named the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male, nor were they informed they had syphilis.
		Herman Shaw, who turns 95 on Sunday and was one of the original participants, spoke for the eight aging survivors, five of whom were able to travel here.
	www.chron.com /content/chronicle/page1/97/05/17/clinton.2-0.html (802 words)

	Tuskegee Study WebQuest
		Instead of looking at the Tuskegee Study and saying, "That was bad," if we are to really learn from the experience and avoid things like it in the future, we must be clear about what made the Tuskegee Study so tragic.
		Yes, it seems everyone agrees that the Tuskegee Study was a low point in U.S. history and a grave tragedy for all involved.
		By now it's clear to the world that the Tuskegee Study was a horrible event in the history of our country and the health care professions.
	www.kn.pacbell.com /wired/BHM/tuskegee_quest.html (2103 words)

	Apology For Study Done in Tuskegee
		The eight men who are survivors of the syphilis study at Tuskegee are a living link to a time not so very long ago that many Americans would prefer not to remember, but we dare not forget.
		The study at Tuskegee served to sow distrust of our medical institutions, especially where research is involved.
		The people who ran the study at Tuskegee diminished the stature of man by abandoning the most basic ethical precepts.
	clinton4.nara.gov /textonly/New/Remarks/Fri/19970516-898.html (1486 words)

	Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
		A Tuskegee doctor, for example, praised “the educational advantages offered our interns and nurses as well as the added standing it will give the hospital.” Nurse Rivers explained her role as one of passive obedience: “we were taught that we never diagnosed, we never prescribed; we followed the doctor's instructions!”
		Gray, however, named only whites and white organizations as defendants in the suit, portraying Tuskegee as a fl and white case when it was in fact more complex than that—fl doctors and institutions had been involved from beginning to end.
		In 1990, a survey found that 10 percent of African Americans believed that the U.S. government created AIDS as a plot to exterminate fls, and another 20 percent could not rule out the possibility that this might be true.
	www.infoplease.com /spot/bhmtuskegee1.html (1506 words)

	NPR : Tuskegee Lessons
		Herman Shaw was one of the few Tuskegee study participants able to attend a White House ceremony in 1997 and witness President Clinton's formal apology for the unethical study.
		For many African Americans, the fact that the Tuskegee study occurred at all proves their lives are not valued in America.
		It evoked images of Booker T. Washington, the educator and founder of Tuskegee Institute, of George Washington Carver, the scientist, or of the Tuskegee airmen, the World War II aviation heroes.
	www.npr.org /programs/morning/features/2002/jul/tuskegee/commentary.html (728 words)

	CNN - Sour legacy of Tuskegee syphilis study lingers - May 16, 1997
		WASHINGTON (CNN) -- The Tuskegee syphilis study, even with President Clinton's apology Friday on the government's behalf, remains a low point for the public health service.
		The experiments have left a legacy of mistrust in the African-American community that is tangible enough to be measured by social scientists in the Birmingham, Alabama, area.
		The Tuskegee study is a symbol of racial and scientific exploitation.
	www.cnn.com /HEALTH/9705/16/nfm.tuskegee/index.html (518 words)

	Address to Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. 29th National Convention
		I cannot help but think what a proud and triumphant day that must have been for all the Tuskegee Airmen, for so many of you who had trained so long and so hard, to have defied the odds and the predictions of the critics and the cynics, and to have persisted despite an oppressive climate.
		President Clinton said at his presentation—and Colonel [Charles] McGee [retired, President of the Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.] was one of the people to speak in the program that afternoon at the White House—President Clinton said in his presentation, "When the doors were shut on him, he knocked again and again until finally they opened.
		I think that is a tribute not only to your heroism, but to the impact you continue to have in shaping the attitudes of young people and creating an atmosphere that is favorable to progress and harmony among races.
	www.defenselink.mil /speeches/2000/s20000811-depsecdef.html (2763 words)

	Tuskegee Airmen suit up, head to Iraq (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Carter is one of seven aging Tuskegee Airmen traveling this weekend to Balad, Iraq - a city ravaged by roadside bombs and insurgent activity - to inspire a younger generation of airmen who carry on the traditions of the storied 332nd Fighter Group.
		The original Tuskegee Airmen were recruited in an Army Air Corps program created to train fls to fly and maintain combat aircraft during World War II - though some of the retired Airmen say it was really designed to try to prove that fls were incapable of flying and fighting.
		In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1940 to 1946.
	seattlepi.nwsource.com /national/1110AP_Tuskegee_Airmen_Iraq.html (704 words)

	Tuskegee Airmen (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Once a cadet completed primary training at Tuskegee's Moton Field, he was sent to nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field for completion of flight training and for transition to combat type aircraft.
		The first classes of Tuskegee airmen were trained to be fighter pilots for the famous 99th Fighter Squadron, slated for combat duty in North Africa.
		By the end of the war, 992 men had graduated from pilot training at Tuskegee, 450 of whom were sent overseas for combat assignment.
	www.wpafb.af.mil /museum/history/prewwii/ta.htm (241 words)

	New York Daily News - World & National Report - New mission: Tuskegee crew to boost G.I.s (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Carter is one of seven aging Tuskegee Airmen who flew this weekend to Balad, Iraq - a city ravaged by bombs and insurgent activity - to inspire a new generation of airmen who carry on the traditions of the storied 332nd Fighter Group.
		The original Tuskegee Airmen were recruited in an Army Air Corps program created to train fls to fly and maintain combat aircraft in World War II.
		In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee through 1946 and about 450 deployed overseas; 150 lost their lives in training or combat.
	www.nydailynews.com /news/wn_report/story/358218p-305255c.html (466 words)

	Tuskegee Experiment -- Britannica Student Encyclopedia
		The study, entitled the “Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male,” was ended in 1972 after a New York Times story on the experiment caused a public outcry…
		On May 16, 1997, in the East Room of the White House, President Bill Clinton issued a formal apology for the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male, the "longest nontherapeutic experiment on human beings" in the history of medicine and public health.
		The study, entitled the “Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male,” was ended in 1972 after a New York Times story on the experiment...
	www.britannica.com /ebi/article-9313920 (794 words)

	African American Pamphlets: Progress of a People: Solving the Race Problem: Industrial Education
		Students at Tuskegee Institute learned, in Booker T. Washington's words, "to do a common thing in an uncommon manner." The institute taught basic farming, carpentry, brickmaking and bricklaying, print shop, home economics, and other practical subjects, as well as basic secondary school courses.
		African-American critics charged that Tuskegee did little more than train its students to comply with the white social order of the South and that Tuskegee graduates, denied access to industrial positions, became domestic workers and manual laborers.
		But in addition to this, in the present economic condition of the colored people, it is most important that a very large proportion of those trained in such institutions as this, actually spend their time at industrial occupations.
	memory.loc.gov /ammem/aap/aapindus.html (397 words)

	Tuskegee (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		In early 1881 Tuskegee was chartered by act of the Alabama legislature.
		In North Africa, the Tuskegee Airmen flew the P-51 Mustang escorting bombers.
		"Tuskegee Airmen present paintings to the Air Force" by by Master Sgt. Merrie Schilter Lowe Sept. 12, 1995 (from AirForceLINK) and photo of one of the paintings.
	history.acusd.edu /gen/WW2Timeline/Tuskegee.html (2001 words)

	Tuskegee Airmen - History
		One Tuskegee Airman, Lt. Richard Bolling, was forced to bail out and floated in the Mediterranean for a full day before he was recovered.
		The Tuskegee Airmen continued flying and fighting, killing and dying, until the end of the war in Europe in May, 1945.
		May 15, 1955: - First edition of The Tuskegee Airmen by Charles E. Francis is published.
	www.acepilots.com /usaaf_tusk.html (2027 words)

	The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
		Gray, however, named only whites and white organizations in the suit, portraying Tuskegee as a fl and white case when it was in fact more complex than that—fl doctors and institutions had been involved from beginning to end.
		The PHS did not accept the media's comparison of Tuskegee with the appalling experiments performed by Nazi doctors on their Jewish victims during World War II.
		Yet in addition to the medical and racist parallels, the PHS offered the same morally bankrupt defense offered at the Nuremberg trials: they claimed they were just carrying out orders, mere cogs in the wheel of the PHS bureaucracy, exempt from personal responsibility.
	www.infoplease.com /ipa/A0762136.html (1318 words)

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