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Topic: Ummayad Muslim Caliphs

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	Sunni
		The period of the Ummayad caliphs (661-750) saw the conquest of North Africa and Spain.
		In the East, Muslim armies arrived in Afghanistan and the region that is present-day Pakistan.
		In 750 the Ummayad caliph was overthrown in rebellion led by the 'Abbasids, who were to form the next caliphate.
	philtar.ucsm.ac.uk /encyclopedia/islam/sunni/sunni.html (812 words)

	Caliph - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam.
		Conflict between caliph and ulema was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema.
		But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Caliphs (3119 words)

	Islam Failed Muslims
		Muslims at one time were the most powerful, richest and advanced people of the world.
		A good Muslim desires to follow Mohammed’s teachings to the full and this means that he must desire to live in an Islamic state where the shariah law is enforced.
		While most Muslims are peaceful people who interpret the Koran in a non-violent manner, such verses create the potential for a minority to justify the use of violence for the establishment of an Islamic state.
	www.faithfreedom.org /Articles/Ohmyrus/islam_failed_muslims.htm (2346 words)

	Opinion
		Muslims first entered Jerusalem in 638 AD and since then more or less they have been in control of temple mount and its platform except for a brief period of seventy years when crusaders became victorious in the land; therefore the entire structures one sees at the temple mount bear the signatures of Muslim architects.
		Caliph Umar, showing his resentment on his opinion said, “We Muslims are commanded to face Kabba” and having said that faced Makkah in the southern corner of the platform to offer his prayers, where later on a mosque was constructed which today is called Masjid Al- Aqsa.
		Clearly what Caliph Umar and the other companions have shown here is a unanimous reaffirmation that as Kabba had become the center of their prayers by a divine decree, the significance of “Sakhra” in Islamic Jurisprudence was over and they had nothing to do with it anymore.
	www.pakistanlink.com /Opinion/2005/Dec05/23/11.HTM (996 words)

	Umayyad - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Caliph Uthman before him was also a descendent of Umayya, and during his time had been criticised for placing members of his family within political positions (for which he was murdered); however since he never declared an heir he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty.
		Muslim armies pushed across North Africa and Iran, through the late 600s, expanding the borders of the empire from the Iberian Peninsula, in the west, to what is today Pakistan, in the east.
		This treatment of the Mawali Muslims as not part of the Arab state, led to uprisings.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Ummayad (1308 words)

	Wikipedia: Hisham
		Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (691 - 743) was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 723 until his death in 743.
		Inheriting the caliphate from his brother Yazid II, Hisham was ruling an emperor with many different problems.
		In North Africa, a large Berber revolt was crushed, with hundreds of thousands of rebels dying.
	www.factbook.org /wikipedia/en/h/hi/hisham.html (363 words)

	Islam and the Arabs: A bried history
		The distinction between Arab Muslims and converted Muslims was likewise wiped away and the basis was laid for the eclectic and tolerant Muslim society of the golden age of Islam.
		Muslim rule in Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted until 1091 when they were finally expelled by the Normans under Roger I. Spain was conquered by successive waves of Muslim invasions in the eighth century.
		The Buwayhids occupied the throne of Persia in 932 and conquered Baghdad in 945.
	www.mideastweb.org /islamhistory.htm (7468 words)

	Caliph information - Search.com
		Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam.
		But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent.
		The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.
	www.search.com /reference/Caliphs (3028 words)

	Muslim History of Hate
		The distinction between Arab Muslims and converted Muslims was likewise wiped away and the basis was laid for the eclectic and tolerant Muslim society of the golden age of Islam.
		Muslim rule in Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted until 1091 when they were finally expelled by the Normans under Roger I. Spain was conquered by successive waves of Muslim invasions in the eighth century.
		Muslim historians recorded in detail the number of infidels slaughtered, or enslaved and deported, the cities and villages which were pillaged, and the lands, treasure, and movable goods seized.
	www.truthandgrace.com /muslimhistory.htm (12159 words)

	The Origins of the Sunni/Shia split in Islam
		Shias feel that Ali should have been the first caliph and that the caliphate should pass down only to direct descendants of Mohammed (pbuh) via Ali and Fatima, They often refer to themselves as ahl al bayt or "people of the house" [of the prophet].
		Rather, we say: every Muslim has the right to follow one of the schools of thought which has been correctly narrated and its verdicts have been compiled in its books.
		Muslims must know this, and ought to refrain from unjust prejudice to any particular school of thought, since the religion of Allah and His Divine Law (Shari'ah) was never restricted to a particular school of thought.
	islamfortoday.com /shia.htm (2301 words)

	Umayyad - Biocrawler (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		After the assassination of Uthman, he was replaced by the new caliph, Ali Ben Abu Talib.
		However, Ali was assassinated in 661, and Muawiyah declared himself caliph of all Muslim lands.
		Muslim armies pushed across North Africa and Iran, through the late 600s, expanding the borders of the empire from Spain in the west to India in the east.
	www.biocrawler.com /encyclopedia/Ummayads (413 words)

	CH11:Imamate
		The Caliphate then passed onto the hands of Yazid's governor in Medina, the old Marwan b.al-Hakam, nephew of the third Caliph Uthman and who, together with his father, had been externed by the Prophet (pbh) from Medina.
		Deliverer from the tyranny and injustice of the Ummayad.
		Restricted by Ibn Zubayr and the successive Ummayad Caliphs who wrestled back Hijaz after Ibn Zubayr's death at the battle against Hajjaj, the Ummayad viceroy in Iraq, in 73 AH / 692 CE, Imam Zayn al-'Abidin spent his time in worship and was known for his long postrations.
	www.muslimhistory.00it.com /INenglish/ImamNcal/Chap11.htm (1111 words)

	Umayyad
		The Umayyad dynasty was the first dynasty of caliphs ("successors") of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad, though they were of the same Meccan clan.
		Muawiyah had been the governor of Syria under the 3rd and 4th caliphs, Uthman and Ali Ben Abu Talib.
		An Umayyad prince, Abd-ar-rahman I, took over the Muslim territory in Spain and founded a new Umayyad dynasty there.
	www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/um/Ummayad.html (78 words)

	Sunnites, Sunni, Ahl-i Sunnah
		Sunnites are, by this definition, Muslims who strictly follow the sunna (practices) of the Prophet Muhammad and preserve the unity and integrity of the community.
		In theory a Muslim could choose whichever school of Islamic thought he or she wished to follow and could change this choice at will.
		One of the challenges confronting Muslim scholars was how to determine which of the many thousands of hadith attributed to the Prophet and his companions were authentic.
	mb-soft.com /believe/txo/sunnites.htm (2281 words)

	Wikipedia: Yazid I
		He is most notoriously remembered for the Battle of Kerbela where the grandson of Muhammad, Husayn bin Ali was killed.
		Husayn wasn't the only eminent figure to oppose Yazid's ascension to the caliphate, he was also opposed by Abdullah bin Zubayr who claimed to be the true caliph.
		When the people of the Hejaz began giving allegiance to Abdullah, Yazid sent armies to subdue the province, and Mecca was beseiged.
	www.factbook.org /wikipedia/en/y/ya/yazid_i.html (141 words)

	:::► Dictionary of Meaning www.mauspfeil.net ◄::: (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Muslims hold that Islam is essentially the same belief as that of all the messengers sent by God to mankind since Adam, with the ''Qur'ān'' (the one definitive text of the Muslim faith) codifying the final revelation of God.
		Muslims believe that the Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the Gabriel (archangel) Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and Muhammad's death in 632.
		Muslims hold that the Qur'an available today is the same as that revealed to Prophet Muhammad and by him to his followers, who memorized his words.
	www.mauspfeil.net /Islam.html (6006 words)

	Al-Qahira (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		After Ali's death, the Muslims split into two main factions: those who thought that the Caliphate should be kept within the family of Muhammad, and those who thought that the Caliph should be elected by consultation and popular consensus.
		The caliph's son managed to escape, and came to Cairo, where he and his descendants remained the official head of state for centuries, even though they had no real power.
		Tensions between the Muslim populations and the Christians may have been ignited over the Crusader presence, and the perception that Christians were favored in the Mamluk government.
	menic.utexas.edu /menic/cairo/history/qahira/qahira.html (3516 words)

	CH14:EarlyAbbasid
		During this transitional period of consolidation of ‘Abbasid rule, the Imam of the time, Ja’far as-Sadiq, who maintained the quiescent policy of his father, was not an immediate threat to the ‘Abbasid and was left alone.
		Anas was flogged and Abu Hanifa imprisoned until his death by the Caliph, Mansur did not attack the other traditionist because he thought that he could establish through them the foundation of a theocratic state with him as the vicegerent of God to whom obedience was Fard or an absolute religious duty.
		To save, strengthen and consolidate his Caliphate, Mansur also continued to justify the rights of his House to the office, on grounds that they were descendants of the Prophet’s uncle, ‘Abbas and since the ‘Abbasid also held to the view that the Imamate and Caliphate were inseparable, Mansur thus asserted himself to be the Imam-Caliph.
	www.muslimhistory.00it.com /INenglish/EAbbas/Chap14.htm (635 words)

	ShaikhSiddiqui Sunni
		The fanatical loyalty to a particular madhhab among Muslims is decreasing.
		Most scholars hold that it is not required of the Muslim to follow a certain Fiqh School because nothing can be made required of Muslims except that made by Allah and His Prophet.
		Among Sunni Muslims, effective power and the ability to maintain order are sufficient for legitimate authority, in stark contrast to the more uncompromising Shia views of government as the sole province of religious leaders.
	www.shaikhsiddiqui.com /sunni.html (1446 words)

	Muslim Rule in India
		Muawiyah, the founder of the Ummayad Caliphate, was a cousin and Abbas, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, an uncle of Muhammad.
		Besides, the way in which Caliphal envoys and investitures were received, indicates that this was not just lip subservience, and the extra-territorial allegiance to the Caliph provided a very strong moral and legal basis of political power to the Muslim regime in India.
		For the Muslim rule in India remained army rule and the army of the Mughal emperors (1526-1707-1857) was a continuation the Sultanate’s with its merits and weaknesses.
	www.bharatvani.org /books/tlmr/ch4.htm (13145 words)

	Talisman Gate: Calling All Caliphs
		The romantic notion of resurrecting the Islam Empire under a ruling caliph is unworkable and will lead to infighting and chaos among the ranks of the bad guys; this unreachable goal marks the weakest clause in their self-defeating vision for what comes next after jihad.
		But the last Ummayad caliph in Mu'awiya's line was murdered a century later in Damascus by the rival 'Abbassids, who went on to establish their own dynasty that lasted for five centuries.
		Hasty myths were spun that had the last ailing caliph of the 'Abbassid line give up the mantle to the Ottoman conqueror of Cairo, and thus the title was transferred unto a Turkish dynasty.
	talisman-gate.blogspot.com /2005/10/calling-all-caliphs.html (1336 words)

	Calligraphy Center at Biliotheca Alexandrina
		For Muslims, the Quran (the word of God) was revealed in Arabic, which therefore became the language of Islam even for non-Arab Muslims.
		The Ummayad period was a transitional stage for Arabic scripts.
		Fatimid caliphs employed calligraphy and scripts in the decoration and adornment of their palaces, mosques and thrones.
	www.bibalex.org /CalligraphyCenter/en/The_Aesthetic_of_Arabic_Calligraphy.html (648 words)

	Yazid II
		Yazid II Yazid bin Abd al-Malik or Yazid II (687 - 724) was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 720 until his death in 724.
		Yazid was a son of Abd al-Malik, but he tried to emulate the previous caliph who was a great reformer, Umar bin Abd al-Aziz.
		Despite his attempts, Yazid would eventually be forced into returning things back to the old ways of standard Umayyad rule by other members of his family.
	www.guajara.com /wiki/en/wikipedia/y/ya/yazid_ii.html (193 words)

	Arab-Islamic history
		From the death of the Prophet to the end of the Ummayad Dynasty (661-750 CE).
		IN 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the head of a mainly Berber army, began the conquest of Spain and, by 733, the Muslims had reached as far north as Poitiers in France.
		A more modern view is that the Muslims were not much interested in the north (they disliked the weather) but victory at Poitiers might have led them to conquer Italy.
	www.al-bab.com /arab/history.htm (964 words)

	The American Muslim (TAM)
		The son of a Chauhan Rajput Muslim migrant from Rajasthan, 72-year old Kaimkhani is a regular visitor to India and insists that the future of South Asia as a whole depends crucially on people-to-people contact between Indians and Pakistanis and a recognition of their common roots and culture despite their religious differences.
		Hazrat Miyan Mir was no less of an ecumenist, the Pir tells me. In recognition of his spiritual stature, he was invited by Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Sikh guru, to lay the foundation stone of the Harminder Sahib or Golden Temple in Amritsar, the most holy shrine of the Sikhs.
		In pre-colonial times, at the popular level boundaries between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in Punjab and Sindh, the heartland of present-day Pakistan, as in much of north India, were often blurred.
	theamericanmuslim.org /tam.php/features/articles/the_other_side_of_pakistani_islam (1940 words)

	THE ORIGINS OF MUSLIM SLAVE SYSTEM
		On conversion also Muslim slaves could not be treated badly for that again would have been damaging to the reputation of the new creed and galling to the lives of the new converts.
		Caliph al-Mutasim (833-842 C.E.) introduced the Turkish element into the army, and he was the first Caliph to have Turkish slaves under his employment.
		Muawiyah, the founder of the Ummayad Caliphate, was a cousin of Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet.
	voi.org /books/mssmi/ch2.htm (2165 words)

	CNS - The Historical Roots of Current Terrorist Tactics and Methods - November 21, 2003 - Research Story of the Week
		Ali's term as caliphate was marred by controversy.
		Although the Kharijites comprised a small minority of Muslims that remained on the fringes of the Islamic community,[15] the impact of fundamentalism and violent jihad has echoed throughout Islamic history.
		It is reported that before departing Mecca, he proclaimed that he would become a martyr in the struggle against the Umayyad "government of injustice and tyranny."[20] In fact, Husayn met his end before reaching Kufa.
	www.cns.miis.edu /pubs/week/031121.htm (3655 words)

	Where is Raed ?
		Which the Shia took as a sign that the rule of the growing Muslim empire should be in the hands of the descendants of the prophet.
		When Yazeed comes to become Caliph in Damascus he wants to make sure that there will not be anyone from the Prophet’s family to contest his right to the throne.
		It is the year 10 according to the Muslim Calendar; the prophet has just finished his first (and last) pilgrimage to Mecca, to the house of Allah.
	dear_raed.blogspot.com (6365 words)

	Did al-Hajjaj Change The Qur'an? A Reply To Christian Polemic (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		The orthodox Muslim theory assumes that the text as canonized by 'Uthman was the final canonization, but there is a reason to believe that a recension of 'Uthman's text was made by the direction of al-Hajjaj, so that we only know of the text of 'Uthman in this later recension.
		This fact was apparently well known to oriental Christian writers, for al-Kindi in his apology, speaks of al-Hajjaj not leaving a single codex that he did not gather up, and left out many things, and of which he sent out copies of his new recension, and directed his attention to destroying the older codices.
		No attempt at the interpolation of the Qur'an are known to have occurred after the era of the four Caliphs, except a report that al-Hajjaj omitted many verses from the Qur'an, which dealt disparagingly with the rule of the Ummayds, and also added to it some which were not there originally.
	salam.muslimsonline.com /~islamawi/Quran/Text/Hajjaj/hajjaj.html (4241 words)

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