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Topic: Uranium 238

	MSN Encarta - Uranium
		The radioactive properties of uranium were first demonstrated in 1896 when the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel produced, by the action of the fluorescent salt potassium uranyl sulfate, an image on a photographic plate covered with a light-absorbing substance.
		Uranium is soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, and it is insoluble in alkalies.
		Uranium never occurs naturally in the free state but is found as an oxide or complex salt in minerals such as pitchblende and carnotite.
	encarta.msn.com /encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761557628 (593 words)

	Uranium
		A heavy, silvery-white, toxic, metallic, and naturally-radioactive element, uranium belongs to the actinide series and its isotope uranium-235 is used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
		The decay of uranium and its nuclear reactions with thorium in the Earth's core is thought to be the source for much of the heat that keeps the outer core liquid, which in turn drives plate tectonics.
		Uranium does not absorb through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin, so uranium that is outside the body is much less harmful than it would be if it were inhaled or swallowed.
	www.sciencedaily.com /encyclopedia/uranium (2150 words)

	Uranium-235 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope, uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission chain reaction.
		A uranium nucleus that absorbs a neutron splits into two lighter nuclei; this is called nuclear fission.
		This concentration is insufficient for a self sustaining reaction in a mass of pure uranium or a light water reactor; enrichment, which just means separating out the uranium-238, must take place to get a usable concentration of uranium-235.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Uranium-235 (239 words)

	Medical Consequences of Depleted Uranium
		DU is actually uranium 238, what's left after the fissionable element uranium 235 is extracted from the ore and used as fuel for weapons and nuclear reactors.
		Because radioactive uranium 238 and its decay products are both alpha and beta emitters, as a carcinogen it can damage cells in the lung, bone, kidney, prostate, gut and brain causing cancer in those organs, as found in a 1999 review of US uranium workers conducted by the Department of Energy.
		Uranium 238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years, while neptunium 237 and plutonium 239 which are many times more carcinogenic than uranium, have half lives of some hundreds of thousands of years.
	www.stopnato.org.uk /du-watch/caldicott/medico.htm (525 words)

	EPA - Uranium - Information Home (EPA's Radiation Protection Program: Information) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium in soil and rocks is distributed throughout the environment by wind, rain and geologic processes.
		Uranium does not absorb through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin, so uranium that is outside the body is much less harmful than it would be if it where inhaled or swallowed.
		Since uranium tends to concentrate in specific locations in the body, risk of cancer of the bone, liver cancer, and blood diseases (such as leukemia) are increased.
	www.epa.gov /radiation/radionuclides/uranium.htm (1472 words)

	Churchill County (Fallon) Nevada Cancer Study - FAQs - Uranium (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium is a common, naturally occurring element, present in low amounts in rocks, soil, air, surface water and groundwater.
		In order for uranium outside the body to cause such injury, the levels of uranium in the environment have to be very high as to be easily detected by instrumentation or lab analysis.
		Again, in order for uranium inside the body to cause cancer, the levels of uranium have to be so large that they are easily detected by laboratory analysis and almost certainly will cause severe kidney damage before any sign of cancer is detected.
	www.cdc.gov /nceh/clusters/Fallon/faq-uranium.htm (783 words)

	FAQ 5-Is uranium radioactive?
		Uranium atoms decay into other atoms, or radionuclides, that are also radioactive and commonly called "decay products." Uranium and its decay products primarily emit alpha radiation, however, lower levels of both beta and gamma radiation are also emitted.
		A sample of natural uranium (as mined) is composed of 99.3% uranium-238, 0.7% uranium-235, and a negligible amount of uranium-234 (by weight), as well as a number of radioactive decay products.
		However, because several of the radioactive uranium decay products are gamma emitters, workers in the vicinity of large quantities of uranium in storage or in a processing facility can also be exposed to low levels of external radiation.
	web.ead.anl.gov /uranium/faq/uproperties/faq5.cfm (277 words)

	World Nuclear Association \| Information and Issue Briefs \| Uranium and Depleted Uranium (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium was discovered by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in 1789 in the mineral pitchblende, and was named after the planet Uranus.
		Uranium may also be mined by in situ leaching (ISL), where it is dissolved from the orebody in situ and pumped to the surface.
		Ingestion or inhalation of uranium oxide dust resulting from the impact of DU munitions on their targets is the main possible exposure route.
	www.world-nuclear.org /info/inf14.htm (3364 words)

	Uranium-238 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Uranium-238, otherwise known as Brannerite, is the most common isotope of uranium found.
		Depleted uranium consists mainly of the 238 isotope, and enriched uranium has a higher-than-natural quantity of the uranium-235 isotope.
		In a weapon, it impedes the nuclear fission reaction, and so much care and effort must be expended to make sure the levels of it in weapons grade uranium are extremely low.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Uranium-238 (257 words)

	Uranium Enrichment
		Using uranium as a fuel in the types of nuclear reactors common in the United States requires that the uranium be enriched so that the percentage of the uranium-235 isotope is increased, typically to 3 to 5%.
		Uranium enrichment is an isotopic separation process that increases the proportion of the uranium-235 isotope in relation to uranium-238 in natural uranium.
		The uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is heated and converted from a solid to a gas.
	web.ead.anl.gov /uranium/guide/depletedu/enrich/index.cfm (460 words)

	IEER Factsheet \| Uranium
		Uranium is the principal fuel for nuclear reactors and the main raw material for nuclear weapons.
		The property of uranium important for nuclear weapons and nuclear power is its ability to fission, or split into two lighter fragments when bombarded with neutrons releasing energy in the process.
		Uranium is generally used in reactors in the form of uranium dioxide (UO) or uranium metal; nuclear weapons use the metallic form.
	www.ieer.org /fctsheet/uranium.html (1325 words)

	La France nucleaire/Nuclear France: PLUTONIUM (ENGLISH)
		Plutonium 238 is prepared by the irradiation of neptunium 237, a fission product recovered during reprocessing or by the irradiation of americium in a reactor.
		Plutonium is more harmful than uranium 235 and uranium 238, in great part because of the differences in their half-lives and, consequently, in their specific activity.
		As with the compounds of uranium, the impact on the body of plutonium compounds depends on the solubility of the compound.
	www.francenuc.org /en_mat/plutonium_e.htm (1566 words)

	Uranium Radiation Properties
		Uranium mill tailings are the residual waste from the process of uranium extraction from the uranium ore.
		Compared to uranium ore, the alpha radiation of uranium mill tailings and thus the radiation hazard on ingestion or inhalation of tailings (dust) is approx.
		This is obtained from the uranium ore concentrate by refining and conversion.
	www.wise-uranium.org /rup.html (2821 words)

	Nuclear Facilities Management (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium is referred to as a ‘special radioactive element' because it is capable of undergoing fission.
		In the United States, uranium is enriched through the gaseous diffusion process in which the compound uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is heated and converted from a solid to a gas.
		The UF6 stream with the greater uranium-235 concentration is referred to as enriched uranium, while the stream that is reduced in its concentration of uranium-235 is referred to as depleted uranium.
	www.ne.doe.gov /uranium/facts.html (680 words)

	World Nuclear Association \| Education \| What is Uranium? How Does it Work?
		The high density of uranium means that it also finds uses in the keels of yachts and as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces (rudders and elevators), as well as for radiation shielding.
		On a scale arranged according to the increasing mass of their nuclei, uranium is the heaviest of all the naturally-occurring elements (Hydrogen is the lightest).
		Uranium is sold only to countries which are signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and which allow international inspection to verify that it is used only for peaceful purposes.
	www.world-nuclear.org /education/uran.htm (2220 words)

	Uranium-238 -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium-238 is the most common (One of two or more atoms with the same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons) isotope of (A heavy toxic silvery-white radioactive metallic element; occurs in many isotopes; used for nuclear fuels and nuclear weapons) uranium found.
		(additional info and facts about Depleted uranium) Depleted uranium consists mainly of the 238 isotope, and (additional info and facts about enriched uranium) enriched uranium has a higher-than-natural quantity of the (additional info and facts about uranium-235) uranium-235 isotope.
		Uranium-238 is relevant to (A weapon of mass destruction whose explosive power derives from a nuclear reaction) nuclear weapons and ((physics) any of several kinds of apparatus that maintain and control a nuclear reaction for the production of energy or artificial elements) nuclear reactors in two ways.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/u/ur/uranium-238.htm (276 words)

	Uranium-238 - Open Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium-238 is the most common isotope of uranium found.
		Around 99.284% of naturally occurring uranium is uranium-238, which has a half-life of 4.47 billion years.
		Depleted uranium consists mainly of the 238 isotope, and enriched uranium consists mainly of the uranium-235 isotope.
	open-encyclopedia.com /Uranium-238 (66 words)

	uranium-234-uranium-238 dating -- Encyclopædia Britannica (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium dioxide is the chemical form most commonly used in large, modern reactors.
		In general, uranium used as fuel is in the form of small cylinders that are encased in a metal tube called cladding.
		Uranium is the last naturally occurring element in the periodic table.
	www.britannica.com /eb/article-9074426?tocId=9074426 (743 words)

	Re: Nuclear Energy
		These different varieties or 'isotopes' of uranium have exactly the same chemical properties, but differ very slightly in a few properties that depend on the weight of atoms, because U-235 atoms are a little bit lighter than U-238.
		Uranium was put in a furnace in a vacuum.
		Uranium is prepared in the form of uranium hexafluoride, a very heavy gas.
	www.madsci.org /posts/archives/may96/831320678.Bc.r.html (693 words)

	Depleted Uranium
		Uranium ore is milled by crushing, leaching, extracting, and precipitating, usually to ammonium diuranate, commonly called yellow cake.
		The uranium compound is reduced to UO powder, which is pelletized, sintered, and encapsulated in tubes for reactor usage.
		Uranium has some special chemical and biological characteristics: since natural uranium has a low specific activity, chemical damage to the kidneys is likely to be more limiting than radiation damage.
	www.physics.isu.edu /radinf/du.htm (845 words)

	What are the Radioactive Byproducts of Depleted Uranium (Uranium-238)? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		When uranium ore is extracted from the earth, most of the uranium is removed from the crushed rock during the milling process, but the radioactive decay products are left in the tailings.
		Thus 85 percent of the radioactivity of the original ore is discarded in the mill tailings.
		Depleted uranium remains radioactive for literally billions of years, and over these long periods of time it will continue to produce all of its radioactive decay products; thus depleted uranium actually becomes more radioactive as the centuries and millennia go by because these decay products accumulate.
	www.ccnr.org /decay_U238.html (403 words)

	Lowry unrealistic about depleted uranium (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		He is in the ballpark when he says 300 tons of depleted uranium was used in the first Gulf War, but he is confusing the issue, and perhaps himself, when he says DU is depleted.
		Possibly 100 tons of the 300 tons of DU used in Iraq were converted on impact into gaseous uranium oxide or a finely divided uranium powder.
		There is a lot of uranium in the ocean, but you would have to drink about 25 tons of seawater before you would need to worry.
	seattlepi.nwsource.com /opinion/107382_uranium06.shtml (637 words)

	Nuclear Chemistry (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Uranium for nuclear weapons is enriched to greater than 90%.
		Uranium hexafluoride (UF), the gaseous compound of uranium, is used in this process.
		Uranium ions for the EMIS are generated from solid uranium tetrafluoride, UF, that is heated to produce a vapor that is then bombarded with electrons to produce U
	chemcases.com /nuclear/nc-07.htm (946 words)

	It's Elemental - The Element Uranium
		Uranium was discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral pitchblende (primarily a mix of uranium oxides) in 1789.
		Naturally occurring uranium consists of three isotopes: uranium-234, uranium-235 and uranium-238.
		Uranium-238, uranium's most common isotope, can be converted into plutonium-239, a fissionable material that can also be used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
	education.jlab.org /itselemental/ele092.html (662 words)

	NRC: Uranium Enrichment
		The uranium enriched in uranium-235 is required in commercial light water reactors to produce a controlled nuclear reaction.
		These are the different isotopes of uranium, which means that while they all contain 92 protons in the atom’s center (which is what makes it uranium).
		Process: In the gaseous diffusion enrichment plant, the solid uranium hexafluoride (UF6) from the conversion process is heated in its container until it becomes a liquid.
	www.nrc.gov /materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html (741 words)

	DEPLETED URANIUM: USES AND HAZARDS
		Depleted uranium is a metal made from uranium hexaflouride which is the by-product of the uranium enrichment process.
		Uranium hexaflouride is the non-fissionable residue or by-product of the uranium enrichment process during which fissionable Uranium 235 and Uranium 234 are separated from natural uranium.
		The international community and all citizens of the world must raise a unified voice in opposition to future use of depleted uranium munitions and force those nations that have used depleted uranium munitions to recognize the immoral consequences of their actions and assume responsibility for medical care and thorough environmental remediation.
	www.stopnato.org.uk /du-watch/rokke/rokke.htm (3974 words)

	Encyclopedia: Uranium-238 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Isotopes are forms of a chemical element whose nuclei have the same atomic number, Z, but different atomic masses, A. The word isotope, meaning at the same place, comes from the fact that all isotopes of an element are located at the same place on the periodic table.
		Enriched uranium is uranium whose uranium-235 content has been increased through the process of isotope separation.
		When the two first isotopes in the decay chain reach their (tiny) equilibrium concentrations, a sample of initially pure uranium-238 will emit three times the radiation due to uranium-238 itself, and most of this will be beta radiation.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Uranium_238 (878 words)

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