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	Top Literature - Portal:Literature
		Literature is literally "an acquaintance with letters", as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning "an individual written character").
		The word "literature" as a common noun can refer to any form of writing, such as essays; "Literature" as a proper noun refers to a whole body of literary work.
		The history of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC.
	encyclopedia.topliterature.com (0 words)

	Chinese Literature
		Chinese literature may be divided into three major historical periods that roughly correspond to those of Western literary history: the classical period, from the 6th century BC through the 2nd century AD; the medieval period, from the 3rd century to the late 12th century; and the modern period, from the 13th century to the present.
		Initially, it was characterized by a vigorous vernacular literature that preceded by several centuries the appearance of modern colloquial literatures in the West.
		Vernacular literature continued to develop through the modern period, until it finally coalesced with a new and more inclusive literary movement in the early years of the 20th century.
	www.ron-turner.com /chineseliterature.html (2627 words)

	French Literature \| France.com
		Beginning in the 11th century, literature written in medieval French was one of the oldest vernacular (non-Latin) literatures in western Europe and it became a key source of literary themes in the Middle Ages across the continent.
		Although the European prominence of French literature was eclipsed in part by vernacular literature in Italy in the 14th century, literature in France in the 16th century underwent a major creative evolution, and through the political and artistic programs of the Ancien Régime, French literature came to dominate European letters in the 17th century.
		Literature in the regional languages continued through to the 18th century, although increasing eclipsed by the rise of the French language and influenced by the prevailing French literary model.
	web.france.com /literature (1291 words)

	Italian Literature
		This century in Italy, as elsewhere, is the golden age of vernacular ascetical and mystical literature, producing a rich harvest of translations from the Scriptures and the Fathers, of spiritual letters, sermons, and religious treatises no less remarkable for their fervour and unction than for their linguistic value.
		Also in religious literature we have the ascetical letters of B. Giovanni Dominici (died 1419), a strenuous opponent of the pagan tendencies of the classical revival, and the vernacular sermons (1427) of St. Bernardine of Siena.
		Political considerations colour most of the literature of the middle of the century, whether it be the historical writings of Cesare Balbo (1789-1853), the satirical and patriotic poems of Giuseppe Giusti (1809-50), the revolutionary lyrics of Gabriele Rossetti (1783-1854), the tragedies of Giovanbattista Niccolini (1782-1861), or the once admired romances of Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi (1804-73).
	www.catholicity.com /encyclopedia/i/italian_literature.html (5883 words)

	French Literature
		Throughout the period, literature was shaped by specific historical traditions and a firmly circumscribed code of priorities, ecclesiastical and secular.
		The dominance of the Church ensured that literary expression was informed by a strong didactic spirit, while feudalism provided a common, if loose, framework of values until it was challenged in the thirteenth century by the growth of towns and a less courtly and more bourgeois public.
		Though the existence of a tripartite social hierarchy (clergy, aristocracy and the rest) might suggest separate literary constituencies, the notion of a ‘public’ for literature is difficult to define.
	www.frenchlanguageguide.com /french/culture/frenchliterature.asp (0 words)

	British literature at AllExperts
		Literature in the Celtic languages of the islands is the oldest surviving vernacular literature in Europe.
		The Irish literature that is best known outside the country is in English, but the Irish language also has the most significant body of written literature, both ancient and recent, in any Celtic language, in addition to a strong oral tradition of legends and poetry.
		Translations are an important feature of the literatures of the regional languages of the islands, for example: Contoyryssyn Ealish ayns Cheer ny Yindyssyn a Manx translation of Alice in Wonderland by Brian Stowell, published in 1990, or the 2004 Scots version of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam by Rab Wilson.
	en.allexperts.com /e/b/br/british_literature.htm (3656 words)

	sociology - Literature
		Literature is literally "an acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning "an individual written character (letter)").
		Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of grammar and syntax, of an unbelievable or disjointed story-line, or of inconsistent or unconvincing characters.
		Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", such as some of the works by Simon Blackburn; but much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar as that of mathematics.
	www.aboutsociology.com /sociology/Literature (2463 words)

	Italian literature. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
		The Tuscan vernacular that had been established by Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio was inhibited by a strong return to Latin in the 15th cent.
		Coluccio Salutati, Lorenzo Valla, Marsilio Ficino, and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola were among the writers and scholars who sought to return to the fonts of classical antiquity for inspiration and guidance in matters of language, literary style, moral instruction, and simply a new vision of the relation of humanity to its surroundings and to God.
		When the vernacular began to be used again in the late 15th cent., poetic language and tastes had been refined by the values of humanist learning.
	www.bartleby.com /65/it/ItalLit.html (1218 words)

	Court: Institutionalizing English Literature
		But even for Fish, until recently, the concept of literature as an "institution," autonomous and dehistoricized, was the primary consideration in examinations of culturally bound evaluative conventions that govern the reading and interpretation of texts.
		His argument was based on the contention that vernacular literary works, like works surviving from antiquity, should have recognized value as "classics." The need at the time was for a center of authority that would accommodate vernacular study and make it academically and politically respectable.
		"Literature," for Vives, included more than just belles lettres: books in law, geography, and history, for instance, were also categorized as "literature." His influence helped to set the stage for the introduction of a wide variety of printed books, including literary selections, into the school curriculum in Britain.
	www.english.ucsb.edu /faculty/rraley/research/english/court.html (3772 words)

	Provençal literature - HighBeam Encyclopedia
		Provençal literature, originating in Limousin, flourished (11th-12th cent.) in the whole area of S France, where langue d'oc was spoken and medieval civilization flowered.
		Provençal literature continued to live during the next centuries, with its most significant output in the popular genres: drama, carols, and burlesques.
		An association of Provençal poets, the Félibrige, was formed (1854) to establish a common orthography for the various dialects and to purify and enrich the vocabulary.
	www.encyclopedia.com /doc/1E1-Provlit.html (484 words)

	Vernacular Languages
		A consequential dearth of Irish literature during the 13th century was followed by a conscious revival of Gaelic literature and of the older form of Irish scripts in the 14th century.
		The formal literature of the church, including the Bible and works of liturgy, remained in Latin during the course of the middle ages.
		However, the appearance of vernacular works designed for the religious instruction of the laity, or for their moral improvement, may testify to an increase in vernacular literacy in the later part of the middle ages.
	medievalwriting.50megs.com /whyread/vernac2.htm (845 words)

	ITALIAN VERNACULAR LITERATURE
		In Italy, as in other countries, the beginning of vernacular literature found the language broken up into dialects, one of which eventually became the basis for the common written language.
		Since Petrarch was an excellent judge of literature as well as a great Italian poet, it is conceivable that his criticisms of Dante are not without an element of jealousy, possibly unconscious; he may well have known that Dante's poem was an achievement that stood by itself.
		Boccaccio is also responsible for introducing into Italian literature the pastoral element, derived from antiquity, emphasizing the lives and loves of nymphs and shepherds in the setting of fields and forests.
	vlib.iue.it /carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/06.html (0 words)

	Literature at AllExperts
		Literature is literally "acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning "an individual written character (letter)").
		Consequently, a novel by Danielle Steele will be included in "literature" but not in "Literature", since most people would not deem the books to be sufficiently intellectual or meaningful.
		Deep thematic content is not required in literature; however, some readers would say that all stories inherently project some kind of outlook on life that can be taken as a theme, regardless of whether or not this is the intent of the author.
	en.allexperts.com /e/l/li/literature.htm (2793 words)

	glbtq >> literature >> Japanese Literature
		Literature was thus at first the concern of a small elite--consisting of courtiers, Buddhist priests and nuns, and later, high-ranking warriors and rich merchants--that adopted Chinese literature wholesale as its literary and cultural heritage.
		Except for poetry composed in vernacular Japanese, Chinese was the literate language of the elite until the ninth century.
		From the tenth century, a vernacular literature came into being at the hands of court women who were largely excluded from the benefits of Chinese literacy but who were deeply influenced by Buddhist thought.
	www.glbtq.com /literature/japan_lit.html (690 words)

	CECC: Literature of China
		Vernacular fiction became popular after the fourteenth century, although it was never esteemed in court circles.
		Much of the literature discussed the serious abuses of power that had taken place at both the national and the local levels during the Cultural Revolution.
		This literature, often called "the literature of the wounded," contained some disquieting views of the party and the political system.
	www.cecc.gov /pages/virtualAcad/soc/literature.php (1830 words)

	Chinese Literature
		A more important contribution to literature by the Han government was the reactivation in 125 BC of the Yüeh Fu, or Music Bureau, which had been established at least a century earlier to collect songs and their musical scores.
		It was in vernacular literature that the writers of this period made a real contribution.
		Although he was too cautious to use the vernacular, except in fiction and plays, he did attempt to approximate the living speech of the people, as Huang Tsun-hsien had done in poetry.
	cyberspacei.com /jesusi/inlight/art/chlit_e.htm (11032 words)

	:: Christendom College :: Bulletin :: English Language and Literature (Site not responding. Last check: )
		As Ezra Pound wrote, "Great literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree," and the student of great literature may thus become aware, perhaps for the first time, of the power of language to convey a wide range of human and transcendent truths.
		Our literature courses are intended to make available the rich patrimony of Western culture, and to form a Christian perspective on the ways the great writers have used their intellects and imaginations to understand and convey the mystery of man's place in the world.
		ENGL 202 The Literature of Western Civilization IV The fourth semester of the literature core treats of the secularization of Western literary culture consequent on the fragmentation of Christendom by the Protestant Revolt and the so-called Enlightenment, focusing on the tensions between a Christian and a deformed understanding of man's nature and destiny.
	www.christendom.edu /academics/bulletin/eng.shtml (2835 words)

	Anthology of World Literature : Section 16 : Overview
		Often building on works of classical literature, vernacular literature (dealing with sex, violence, satire, and humor) became known for its ability to elaborate creatively on plots of earlier works by filling in details or perhaps even by articulating what had been omitted.
		In effect, this meant that although classical literature retained importance in intellectual circles, it gradually became marginalized in spheres of public and private life.
		In its place, vernacular literature (plays, verse, romance, and prose fiction) began to play an important role in urban areas.
	www.wwnorton.com /nawol/s16_overview.htm (628 words)

	China and Inner Asia Sessions (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Although attempts to write a history of early vernacular journalism are meeting a host of difficulties, this paper, by comparing available material with catalogues, periodicals’ lists and references found in contemporary sources, tries to reevaluate the role of revolutionary vernacular journalism for the development of the vernacular press as a whole.
		First, primary and secondary textbooks systematically taught a mass public the stylistic conventions and lexicon of the written vernacular, transforming it from the contrived preserve of a small group of reformist intellectuals into the daily written language of several generations of educated youths.
		Nevertheless, the fact that using vernacular language in the newspapers was not economical obstructed the total use of the vernacular Chinese in the commercial newspapers.
	www.aasianst.org /absts/2006abst/China/C-59.htm (1424 words)

	Indian Literature
		The word literature is derived from Latin "littera" meaning `an individual` written character (letter) and literature is literally `acquaintance with letters as expressed in Oxford English dictionary.
		The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry which aim at providing education, entertainment and enlightenment to its readers as well the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces.
		Most important of all for Indian literature were the first traces in the vernacular languages of the northern Indian cults of Krishna and of Rama.
	www.indianetzone.com /literature (0 words)

	Chinese Literature
		Often these works were written in the vernacular, and many authors felt it was beneath their station to be associated with this type of writing.
		In vernacular fiction one of the greatest novelists was Lo Kuan-chung (1330-1400), known for his masterpiece, `The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'.
		It was in the vernacular literature of the period that writers made significant contributions.
	polaris.gseis.ucla.edu /yanglu/ECC_CULTURE_LITERATURE.HTM (3600 words)

	Cong-Huyen-Ton-Nu Nha-Trang -- Research Articles
		I have found that the most simple and logical way to define modern Vietnamese literature is to identify and describe the features marking its departure from traditional literature which had dominated the Vietnamese cultural sphere for centuries.
		It dealt with the same topics Han literature was preoccupied with, as well as encompassing social satire and including a tremendously popular genre, the verse narrative, the most celebrated example of which was The Tale of Kieu, a 3,254-line work written by Nguyen Du in the early 19th century.
		This was one of the more powerful moments in the history of modern Vietnamese literature: her talk brought into sharp focus the two-year-old battle in printed words between old and new poetry involving not only individuals but also the press.
	www.geocities.com /chtn_nhatrang/modlit.html (3665 words)

	John Wycliffe Bible (Late), c.1395
		The main biblical literature of this period, however, was French.
		For the benefit of the Norman settlers in England, translations of the greater part of both Old Testament and New Testament were produced during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
		The fourteenth century, which saw the practical extinction of the general use of the French language in England, and the rise of a real vernacular literature, saw also a great revival of vernacular Biblical literature, beginning apparently with the Book of Psalms.
	www.sbible.boom.ru /wyc/wycle.htm (0 words)

	Italian literature - HighBeam Encyclopedia
		Italian vernacular literature emerged in the 13th century with the work of the Sicilian poets at the court of Frederick II; they extensively employed the sonnet.
		From Gray's 'Elegy' to Foscolo's 'Carme': highlighting the mediation and sublimation of the 'sepulchral.' (Thomas Gray, Ugo Foscolo) (Considerations on Italian Literature)
		The Italian Reformation of the Sixteenth Century and the Diffusion of Renaissance Culture: A Bibliography of the Secondary Literature (Ca.
	www.encyclopedia.com /doc/1O142-Italianliterature.html (534 words)

	An introduction to Chinese literature
		In an attempt to spread their religion, Buddhist preachers wrote stories for the common people in colloquial language and evolved a form of narrative known as bianwen, sometimes translated as "popularization," which marked the beginning of popular fiction in China.
		Stimulated by the literature of the West, Chinese writers, led by Hu Shi, started a literary revolution known as the Chinese Renaissance in an attempt to urge the written use of colloquial language and to heighten its status as a means of scholarly expression.
		During the years of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), writers and artists were expected to serve the needs of the people, and bourgeois Western influence was zealously attacked.
	www.china-on-site.com /literatu/intro.htm (2750 words)

	Chivalry Revisited - In Print and Online
		Until now, the study of the vernacular literature of romance, poetry, and protest in English from 1000 to 1550 has focused on a canon of core authors: Chaucer, the Gawain-Poet, Langland, and Malory.
		Vernacular literature in English burgeoned in the last quarter of the fourteenth century with the works of Chaucer, Gower, Lydgate, and many romance poets.
		For Peck, the most inspiring aspect of the METS project is that vernacular literature from the High Middle Ages which has been lost in obscurity or has not been available in current editions—sometimes for centuries—is being brought to light.
	www.neh.gov /news/humanities/1999-03/chivalry.html (2505 words)

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