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	Physical Constant Encyclopedia Article @ Quantities.org (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		In speed, a physical constant is a CODATA Recommendations of a value that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and not believed to change in time.
		Physical constants can take many carbon-12 forms: the speed of light signifies a maximum free fall limit of the cross section and is expressed dimensionally as [2] divided by National Institute of Standards and Technology; while the 5 Table of electromagnetic constants α, which characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is Disclaimers.
		The weak edit simply states that it is only because these fundamental constants acquired their respective values that there was sufficient order and richness in elemental diversity for life to have formed, which subsequently evolved the necessary intelligence toward observing that these constants have taken on the values they have.
	www.quantities.org /encyclopedia/Physical_constant (1209 words)

	Klaus von Klitzing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Klaus von Klitzing, (born June 28, 1943 in German occupied Środa Wielkopolska) is a German physicist.
		Von Klitzing became professor in Munich in 1980.
		Since 1985, von Klitzing is a director of the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research in Stuttgart.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing (283 words)

	Electrical Units - MSN Encarta
		The volt is derived from the AC Josephson effect in which the potential difference between two superconductors separated by a narrow gap assumes discrete values related only to the frequency of electromagnetic waves irradiating the junction and to a precisely known quantity, the Josephson constant (value 483,597.9 GHz/V).
		The ohm is derived from the quantum Hall effect: certain semiconductors at low temperatures and in high magnetic fields have a resistance that is quantized in steps related to another known quantity, the von Klitzing constant (value 25,812.807 W).
		The SI values of the Josephson and von Klitzing constants are the 1990 consensus values determined from absolute measurements.
	uk.encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761556129/Electrical_Units.html (448 words)

	Klaus von Klitzing Biography \| World of Biology
		Klitzing was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in physics for his discovery of the quantized Hall effect, Von Klitzing's discovery has had a number of profound effects in both theoretical and practical fields of physics, exhibiting one of the first instances in which quantum effects had been observed on a macroscopic scale.
		Klaus von Klitzing was born on June 28, 1943, in Schroda, Germany, close to the Polish border, to Bogislav von Klitzing, a forester, and Anny Ulbrich.
		That constant, 25,813 ohms, is significant because it is the ratio of two fundamental constants of nature, the square of an electron's electrical charge and Planck's constant.
	www.bookrags.com /biography/klaus-von-klitzing-wob (832 words)

	Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)
		In 1980 the German physicist Klaus von Klitzing discovered a new quantum effect when he studied the Hall voltage of MOS field effect transistors at low temperatures in high magnetic fields.
		Von Klitzing observed deviations from a "smooth" relation when he measured the Hall voltage in dependence of a gate voltage applied to the sample.
		To honor his discovery, von Klitzing was awarded the Nobel prize for physics in 1985.
	www.ptb.de /en/org/2/25/253/verweis/Q_H_Effect.htm (627 words)

	Physics Today March 2001
		The fine-structure constant in the expression for the electron mass is most precisely determined by comparing theory and experiment for the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, as discussed in box 2.
		A remarkable aspect of this experiment is that the Planck constant, which is the characteristic unit of quantum phenomena, is measured by a two-story-high apparatus, shown in figure 3, that is described by classical mechanics and classical electromagnetic theory.
		As described in box 2, the value of the fine-structure constant is most strongly determined by comparison of theory and experiment for the electron anomalous magnetic moment, and the theoretical expression, in turn, is determined by high-order QED calculations.
	physicstoday.org /pt/vol-54/iss-3/p29.html (3210 words)

	Physical constant (via CobWeb/3.1 planetlab2.tamu.edu) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		Constants can take many forms: the Planck length represents a fundamental physical distance; the speed of light in a vacuum signifies a maximum speed limit of the universe; and the fine-structure constant, which characterizes the interaction between electrons and photons, is dimensionless.
		Constants that are independent of systems of units are typically dimensionless numbers, and are known as fundamental physical constants.
		Some believe that if the physical constants had slightly different values, our universe would be so different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our universe seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life.
	physical-constant.iqnaut.net.cob-web.org:8888 (428 words)

	materials science 01
		It was the first time that this fundamental constant has been determined by means of neutrons.
		Nowadays it is interpreted as the coupling constant of the electromagnetic interaction.
		Measurement of the quotient of Planck constant and neutron mass.
	www.ill.fr /AR-96/pages/23fundam.htm (693 words)

	Physical constant - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In physics, a physical constant is a physical quantity of a value that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and not believed to change in time.
		Physical constants can take many dimensional forms: the speed of light signifies a maximum speed limit of the universe and is expressed dimensionally as length divided by time; while the fine-structure constant α, which characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is dimensionless.
		The weak anthropic principle simply states that it is only because these fundamental constants acquired their respective values that there was sufficient order and richness in elemental diversity for life to have formed, which subsequently evolved the necessary intelligence toward observing that these constants have taken on the values they have.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Physical_constant (1021 words)

	Press Release: The 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics
		Von Klitzing has through his experiment shown that the quantised Hall effect has fundamental implications for physics.
		Secondly, it affords a new possibility of measuring the earlier-mentioned constant, which is of great importance in, for example, the fields of atomic and particle physics.
		The crucial experiment was carried out by Klaus von Klitzing in the spring of 1980 at the Hochfelt-Magnet-Labor in Grenoble, and published as a joint paper with G. Dorda and M. Pepper.
	nobelprize.org /nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1985/press.html (1202 words)

	Kilogram - Encyclopedia, History, Geography and Biography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		In a similar manner that the metre was redefined to fix the speed of light to an exact value of 299792458 m/s, there are proposals to redefine the kilogram in such a way to fix other physical constants of nature to exact values.
		Planck's constant: The Watt balance uses the current balance that was formerly used to define the ampere to relate the kilogram to a value for Planck's constant, based on the definitions of the volt and the ohm.
		C. This is because the 1988 CIPM conventional values for the Josephson and von Klitzing constants are not identical to the 2002 CODATA values.
	www.arikah.com /encyclopedia/Kg (1655 words)

	Von Klitzing Constant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		The integer quantization of the Hall conductance was originally predicted by Ando, Matsumoto, and Uemura in 1975, on the basis of an approximate calculation.
		It was only in 1980 that von Klitzing, working with samples developed by Michael Pepper and Gerhard Dorda, made the totally unexpected discovery that the Hall conductivity was ''exactly'' quantized.
		For this finding, von Klitzing was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics.
	www.seattleluxury.com /encyclopedia/entry/von_Klitzing_constant (582 words)

	Klaus von Klitzing
		German physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1985 for his discovery that under appropriate conditions the resistance offered by an electrical conductor is quantized; that is, it varies by discrete steps rather than smoothly and continuously.
		Klitzing demonstrated that electrical resistance occurs in very precise units by using the Hall effect.
		The size of those jumps is directly related to the so-called fine-structure constant, which defines the mathematical ratio between the motion of an electron in the innermost orbit around an atomic nucleus to the speed of light.
	www.nobel-winners.com /Physics/klaus_von_klitzing.html (318 words)

	hall resistance and fine structre constant
		On the other hand, the von Klitzing constant is a RESISTANCE so its numerical value depends on what units you use to measure resistance.
		So there could not be a really simple-minded connection between the two-----one is a pure constant number (a bit like pi itself!) and the other is a resistance quantity that varies numerically all over the place depending on choice of scale.
		The fine structure constant alpha is just the numerical value of the coulomb constant when it is expressed in the same Planck-style units.
	www.physicsforums.com /showthread.php?p=70839 (1073 words)

	Quantum Hall effect biography .ms (via CobWeb/3.1 planetlab2.tamu.edu) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		It has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance: since 1990, one "klitzing" (after Klaus von Klitzing, the discoverer of exact quantization) has been defined as the Hall resistance at ν = 4 (i.e., h/4e²).
		In addition, the resistance unit h/e², roughly equal to 25,812.8 Ohms, is sometimes referred to as the von Klitzing constant.
		When coupled with measurements of the Josephson constant, it provides an extremely precise independent determination of the fine structure constant, an extremely important quantity in quantum electrodynamics.
	www.biography.ms.cob-web.org:8888 /Von_Klitzing_constant.html (436 words)

	Von Klitzing Constant \| Euler Constant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
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	aoum.info /von-klitzing-constant.htm (453 words)

	Von Klitzing Constant \| I Constant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
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	bxvl.info /von-klitzing-constant.htm (372 words)

	Physics Today March 2001
		The Planck constant h can be measured by comparing a watt of mechanical power expressed in terms of the meter, kilogram, and second to a watt of electrical power expressed in terms of the Josephson constant K
		Since the voltage U and the voltage and resistance that determine I are calibrated in terms of the Josephson and von Klitzing constants, the constant A is, in principle, exactly known, and f
		The 1998 recommended value of the Planck constant, which is determined primarily by the watt-balance experiment, is
	www.aip.org /pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p29box3.html (272 words)

	Unified Theory: Freespace constants derived
		This unit is defined as that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of length.
		In 1985, a German physicist Von Klitzing was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery that under appropriate conditions the resistance offered by an electrical conductor is quantized; that is, it varies by discrete steps rather than smoothly and continuously.
		It is worth noting that the fine-structure 'constant' maintains its value as long as the entity of matter is at stand still.
	www.blazelabs.com /f-u-const.asp (3922 words)

	The International System of Units, by Robert A. Nelson (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		The ratio of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic unit of charge or current was a fundamental experimental constant c.
		The unit of electric current, the ampere, is defined as that constant current which, if maintained in each of two parallel, infinitely long wires with a separation of 1 meter in vacuum, would produce a force per unit length between them equal to 2 x 10-7 N/m.
		For the purpose of practical engineering metrology, conventional values for the Josephson constant and the von Klitzing constant were adopted by international agreement starting January 1, 1990.
	www.aticourses.com /international_system_units.htm (6282 words)

	Quantised Hall Effect (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		The quantised Hall effect was discovered by K. von Klitzing, G. Dorda and M. Pepper in 1980.
		The von Klitzing constant is believed to be equal to the ratio h/e
		In January 1990, the results of measurements of the von Klitzing constant in SI units were combined with other physical measurements of h/e
	www.npl.co.uk /electromagnetic/dclf/voltres/quanthall.html (378 words)

	Implications of a Non-Constant Velocity of Light
		Measurements on constants of physics which do not carry dimensions of time (seconds or 1/seconds; or powers thereof) are found to be truly fixed and invariant.
		If the "universal constants" are different at the position of supernova 1987A, for example, then the physics is different and an observer in that frame should be able to determine that he is in a unique position relative to any other frame of reference and vice-versa.
		He suggests that cDK may be acceptable if "Planck's constant is also changing in such a way as to keep the fine structure 'constant' constant." This is in fact the case as the 1987 Report makes clear.
	ldolphin.org /cdkconseq.html (22804 words)

	Realization of SI units 1.1.2
		In the first, predicted by Josephson in 1962, the potential difference between two superconductors separated by a narrow gap assumes discrete values that are multiples of hf/2e, where f is the frequency of electromagnetic waves irradiating the junction, h is the Planck constant, e the electronic charge, and 2e/h is the ‘Josephson constant’ K
		The second, the quantum Hall effect, discovered by von Klitzing in 1980, is that for certain semiconductors at low temperatures and in high magnetic fields the Hall resistance, defined as the ratio of the Hall voltage to the source-to-drain current, is quantized in steps R
		From the results of the best recent absolute measurements CIPM evaluated the Josephson and von Klitzing constants in SI units, and recommended that from 1 January 1990 national laboratories should maintain their standards of e.m.f.
	www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk /units_and_fundamental_constants/1_1/1_1_2.html (1950 words)

	APGRADE Workshop - List of Abstracts
		Like few other parameters, the mass of an atom and its inherent connection with the atomic and nuclear binding energy is a fundamental property, a unique fingerprint of the atomic nucleus.
		The paper describes an improved attempt of several national metrology insti-tutes and international organisations to replace the present definition of the kilogram by the mass of a certain number of carbon 12 atoms.
		Moreover the recent proposal for the redefinition of the Kilogramme by fixing the value of the Planck constant h has emphasized the interest of precise measurements of α.
	www.ill.fr /apgrade/Abstracts.htm (2589 words)

	[No title]
		From the synthesis of these two discoveries, we know that every object is engaged in some sort of repetitious process; although, the exact nature of the repetition is unknown.
		Let the elementary charge e, and the elementary quantum action h, be defined such that the Josephson constant has a value of exactly 2.00 e/h, and the von Klitzing constant has a value of exactly 1.00 h/e
		The Josephson and von Klitzing constants have been determined to over eight digits of accuracy, and are sufficient for establishing these base values.
	www.zianet.com /egghead/time.html (1006 words)

	Reference.com/Encyclopedia/Quantum Hall effect
		The quantum Hall effect is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect, observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall conductance σ takes on the quantized values
		It has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance: the resistance unit h/e², roughly equal to 25 812.8 ohms, is referred to as the von Klitzing constant R
		(after Klaus von Klitzing, the discoverer of exact quantization) and since 1990, a fixed conventional value R
	www.reference.com /browse/wiki/Von_Klitzing_constant (584 words)

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