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Topic: War Guilt Clause

	GI -- World War II Commemoration
		The political clauses referring to civil liberties, the suppression of fascist activities, and the surrender of war criminals were identical with those in the Italian treaty, as were the military clauses relating to new weapons.
		Under the military clauses the army was to be limited to 120,000 men, the antiaircraft artillery force to 5,000, the navy to 5,000, and the air force to 8,000, with 15,000 tons set as the limit on the fleet and 150 planes as the limit on the air force.
		Special clauses forbade any political or economic union of Austria and Germany or even agitation in such a cause; stipulated that the nation should have a democratic government, the secret ballot, and free, equal, and universal suffrage; and directed that a ban be maintained against the return of the house of Habsburg.
	gi.grolier.com /wwii/wwii_15.html (2565 words)

	The Roots of World War II
		Aside from the general exhaustion of the warring nations, a major development was occurring to the east.
		Germany was to become an outcast nation on the basis of its war guilt.
		During the war the Allies imposed a starvation blockade on Germany.
	www.fff.org /freedom/0295d.asp (1267 words)

	FIRST WORLD WAR ONE THE GREAT WAR WWI
		The War Guilt clause, or Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, was a major issue in internal German politics in the 1920s and 1930s and worked to the favor of the Nazis, who rode the coattails of German nationalism all the way to the Reichstag.
		Many war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versaille treaty was signed, 1919; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the Armistice of 1918; however, the formal ending of all hostilities was not until 1923.
		During the war, the [Haber process] of nitrogen fixation was employed to provide the German forces with a continuing supply of powder for the ongoing conflict in the face of Brittish naval control over the trade routes for naturally occurring nitrates.
	www.solarnavigator.net /world_war_one.htm (9493 words)

	"Forward-March!" a photographic memorial of World War I
		Therefore, the mass of propaganda to the effect that England was forced into the war because of the invasion of Belgium, apparently was a subterfuge, used to inflame the British people.
		Germany's established innocence of war guilt does not necessarily imply deliberate conspiracy on the part of France and Russia to start the war.
		Hitler's repudiation of the armament clauses in the treaty and the warlike expressions to his people, contrasted with his peaceful expressions to other nations, show definitely the trend toward war.
	www.usgennet.org /usa/topic/preservation/dav2a/pg486.htm (1306 words)

	Discussions - Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles (due Tue., Jan. 13)
		I recognize that we lost the war and should be punished with a reduction in military and naval expenditures, but the rest of the economy should be allowed to recover for the good of everyone.
		War is one easy result of economic and social devistation, and I would not the treaty to so devastate the german citizenry as to cause another.
		I doubt that I would have supported the war effort in the first place, and the treaty, like others have mentioned, completely failed to distinguish between the guilt of the leaders of the nation and the guilt of the citizens.
	www.learntoquestion.com /class/discussion/showthread.php?t=1167 (6072 words)

	World War One - Treaty of Versailles
		In 1919, Lloyd George of England, Orlando of Italy, Clemenceau of France and Woodrow Wilson from the US met to discuss how Germany was to be made to pay for the damage world war one had caused.
		There were a total of 440 clauses in the final treaty.
		The first 26 clauses dealt with the establishment of the League of Nations.
	www.historyonthenet.com /WW1/versailles.htm (842 words)

	World War Two - Main Causes
		Although the outbreak of war was triggered by Germany's invasion of Poland, the causes of the war are more complex.
		Although it was realised that the policy of appeasement had failed, Chamberlain was still not prepared to take the country to war over "..a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing." Instead, he made a guarantee to come to Poland's aid if Hitler invaded Poland.
		As a punishment for having started World War One, Germany was not allowed to join and Russia was also excluded due to a growing fear of Communism.
	www.historyonthenet.com /WW2/causes.htm (1810 words)

	The Avalon Project : The Versailles Treaty June 28, 1919
		Damage to injured persons and to surviving dependents by personal injury to or death of civilians caused by acts of war, including bombardments or other attacks on land, on sea, or from the air, and all the direct consequences thereof, and of all operations of war by the two groups of belligerents wherever arising.
		Damage caused by Germany or her allies to civilian victims of acts of cruelty, violence or maltreatment (including injuries to life or health as a consequence of imprisonment, deportation, internment or evacuation, of exposure at sea or of being forced to labour), wherever arising, and to the surviving dependents of such victims.
		Germany agrees to take any measures that may be indicated to her by the Reparation Commission for obtaining the full title to the property in all ships which have during the war been transferred, or are in process of transfer, to neutral flags, without the consent of the Allied and Associated Governments.
	www.yale.edu /lawweb/avalon/imt/partviii.htm (4897 words)

	World War I: German History
		Germany's war aims were annexationist in nature and foresaw an enlarged Germany, with Belgium and Poland as vassal states and with colonies in Africa.
		By 1916, however, opposition to the war had mounted within the general population, which had to endure many hardships, including food shortages.
		Another reason for their insistence on a settlement that fulfilled expansionist aims was that the government had not financed the war with higher taxes but with bonds.
	www.germanculture.com.ua /library/history/bl_world_war_1.htm (868 words)

	Versailles: The War Guilt Clause
		The German delegates were coerced into signing the Versailles Treaty by threats of renewed war and by the economic blockade still imposed on Germany after the armistice by the fleets of the Entente.
		The thesis of exclusive German war guilt was required by the Entente as a premise for the Carthaginian peace imposed on the Central Powers, which included the demand for more than $32 billion in war reparations, especially to France, plus interest for servicing this debt over decades into the future.
		The treaty must be revised to specify the war guilt of an international conspiracy masterminded first by King Edward VII of England, and after him by Sir Edward Grey, in which figures like Izvolski, Sazonov, and Clemenceau were participants.
	members.tripod.com /~american_almanac/warguilt.htm (606 words)

	The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences
		France and her Allies eventually came to a painful compromise that the Rhineland would be occupied by Allied troops for 15 years and free of German forces for an unspecified period of time.
		Because of all of the ambiguities involving the war reparations, an exact monetary figure owed by the Germans to the Allies was never included in the Treaty of Versailles.
		The Second World War, which broke out in 1939, was waged by Germany against the Allies to exact revenge and to finish what could not be completed by World War I. Mazower refers to World War II as “a bloody reopening of accounts by extreme nationalists wishing to revise the Versailles settlement by force.”
	www.jimmyatkinson.com /papers/versaillestreaty.html (2586 words)

	World War I, Report on War Guilt by the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-17)
		Report on War Guilt by the 'Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War'
		Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, the "war-guilt clause," was based largely on this Commission's conclusions.
		The War was premeditated by the Central Powers together with their allies, Turkey and Bulgaria, and was the result of acts deliberately committed in order to make it unavoidable.
	www.lib.byu.edu /~rdh/wwi/1918/warguilt.html (135 words)

	Europe in Retropsect: The Precarious Peace - War, Peace and Germany
		This clause has been termed the "war guilt" clause, and was the one the Germans tried to avoid and were soon to denounce bitterly.
		Germany's defeat was the immediate reason why that nation was selected as the guilty party, but the ideological nature of the war had already conditioned the populations of France, England, and the United States to acceptance of the idea.
		The treaty makers, assuming Germany's war guilt, were determined to deprive that nation of the means of making war again.
	www.britannia.com /history/euro/3/3_2.html (2780 words)

	WORLD WAR I
		There were representatives from all the countries that had been at war with the Central Powers.
		One of the first acts of the Peace Conference was to draw up a constitution for a League of Nations (an association of nations established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace).
		Moreover, the treaty contained a war guilt clause that it alone was responsible for World War One.
	www.angelfire.com /co4/pit/signing.htm (248 words)

	Wilson Fights for Peace
		Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
		The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
		While German militarism had played a large part in starting the war, many nations were no less guilty in their provocation of diplomatic crisis.
	www.geocities.com /world_war52/wilson.htm (1157 words)

	The Great War Society: Relevance Archive
		At the end of previous wars, the victor had required tribute from the vanquished as a reward for its success on the battlefield.
		The Great War had represented an anomaly in modern military history: The four years of ruinous combat on all fronts had been confined to the territory of the eventual victors.
		The word "guilt" appears nowhere in the treaty, and the word, "responsibility," which does, was inserted by a sharp young Wall Street lawyer to conceal from the Allied publics who had been led to expect vast sums, the drastic reduction in the amount to which Germany would be held accountable.
	www.worldwar1.com /tgws/rel007.htm (3380 words)

	Oregon & World War One: After the war - Another try at isolation
		During the war, President Wilson and others tried to find some way to bring about peace based on four principles: the substitution of an international organization for the old alliance system; the substitution of arbitration for armaments; the institution of self government; and the avoidance of seizures of territories and of reparation demands.
		In 1916 he advocated the idea of a "league of nations" and the next year he called for a "peace without victory." In fact, Wilson spurned the idea of entangling alliances when the United States entered the war not as one of the "Allies" but rather as an "associated" belligerent.
		Over the years, important provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, such as the "war guilt" clause and heavy war reparations imposed on Germany, contributed to the rise of resentment and radicalism in German society.
	arcweb.sos.state.or.us /exhibits/war/intro/isolation.html (747 words)

	Felix Morrow: Stalin Blames the German Proletariat (June 1942)
		The logical cornerstone of a second Versailles Treaty, as of the first, must necessarily be a “war guilt” clause, justifying the crushing of Germany in peacetime by its imperialist rivals.
		Thus, for instance, it is clear that notwithstanding the disposition or prejudices of certain parts of the working masses during the imperialist war, the workers’ parties ought to have counteracted these prejudices, defending the historical interests of the proletariat, which demanded of the proletarian parties a declaration of war against war.
		But Stalin’s “war guilt” clause will be no more accepted by the German proletariat, and the vanguard of the world proletariat which completely solidarizes itself with its German brothers, than they accepted the “war guilt” clause of the first Versailles Treaty.
	www.marxists.org /archive/morrow-felix/1942/06/stalin.htm (5356 words)

	Bridging The Abyss of Revenge
		As if anticipating and trying to prevent the "war guilt" clause of the Versailles treaty soon to be written by the Western allies, Weber raised the question of forgiveness in politics: "A nation forgives if its interests have been damaged, but no nation forgives if its honor has been of fended by a bigoted self-righteousness.
		But none of the combatants allowed the war to be "buried, at least morally." And Adolf Hitler' s manipulation of German memory of World War I and its aftermath prepared the way for World War II.
		Post-World War II Germany, however, has confronted the truth of the Nazi era, decade by decade, in an accumulation of public reminders of its evils -- evils that must be remembered before they can be forgotten.
	www.religion-online.org /showarticle.asp?title=1523 (2662 words)

	Victor Berger
		Berger may have won his first reelection to Congress after the war because Milwaukee voters resented being told who was an acceptable candidate for national office; he won reelection after that because he maintained a well-oiled political machine in Milwaukee and because he continued to address war-related issues of importance.
		Also, foreshadowing arguments for the post-World War II Marshall Plan, Berger claimed that an unstable economic situation in Germany would be the perfect breeding grounds for a violent Bolshevist revolution.
		To rectify the situation and prevent the recurrence of war, Berger promoted repealing the Espionage Act, freeing political prisoners who had lost their freedom during the war, and supporting the activities of the American Civil Liberties Union (which had been formed in 1920 in response to wartime rights violations).
	us.history.wisc.edu /hist102/bios/html/berger9.html (1139 words)

	Educate Yourself - Weimar Germany
		Having to admit responsibility for the outbreak of the war, the "War Guilt Clause," was especially trying.
		Germany was also forced to pay for pensions of war victims and some compensation for their families, an unheard of provision.
		But the cost of the war - 164 billion marks - had been met not just by direct taxation, but rather 93 billion by war loans, 29 billion out of Treasury bills and the rest by increasing the issuance of paper money.
	www.buyandhold.com /bh/en/education/history/2003/germany.html (1778 words)

	Learning Curve: The Great War
		World War I, which began in the summer of 1914 and only ended after over four years of bloody conflict, was one of the major turning points in history.
		There is no analysis of the political consequences of the war and the peace, and the role the peace played in causing World War II and in later conflicts in the Balkans or the Middle East.
		With all the wonderful photographs taken during the war, it is a shame that some of them could not have been used to enliven the home page and to make the site more inviting.
	www.publichistory.org /reviews/View_Review.asp?DBID=78 (1972 words)

	topics_template
		A great turning point in history, Europe becomes center stage for World War I. Historical forces and twists of fate combined to set off a power keg of conflict leaving a legacy of death and destruction from the "great war".
		Conditions leading to the war included imperialism, new technologies, rising nationalism, conflict over territory, strong leadership, rival alliances and a naive sense for a quick victory.
		At the war's conclusion, the flawed peace at Versailles ironically sets the stage for yet another war.
	www.cccsd.org /CurriculumContent/ghg2004/WW1/worldwarI.htm (1220 words)

	The Collapse of the Weimar Republic (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-17)
		He was too enthusiastic about the war, one of the "war lovers." War had given Hitler the first real meaningful experience in his life, and it transformed him.
		The sacrifice of war and humiliation and burden of defeat turned many Germans against the republic and in favor of revenge or restoration.
		Hitler and the Nazis exploited the failure of the republic by promising to reverse the outcome of the war, remove those foreign elements (Jews) within Germany, smash failed democracy, rebuild the economy, and restore Germany to a dominant position in Europe.
	www.appstate.edu /~brantzrw/GermanHistory/collapseofweimar.htm (3675 words)

	The Avalon Project : The Versailles Treaty June 28, 1919
		The Allied and Associated Powers will address a request to the Government of the Netherlands for the surrender to them of the ex-Emperor in order that he may be put on trial.
		The German Government recognises the right of the Allied and Associated Powers to bring before military tribunals persons accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war.
		Such persons shall, if found guilty, be sentenced to punishments laid down by law.
	www.yale.edu /lawweb/avalon/imt/partvii.htm (353 words)

	Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) is commonly known as the “Guilt Clause” or the "War Guilt Clause", in which Germany was forced to take complete responsibility for starting World War I.
		The United Kingdom and France played the primary role in the article, while the United States did not play as active a role, mostly due to President Woodrow Wilson's principle of "peace without victory"
		The names "Guilt Clause” and "War Guilt Clause" were assigned in later commentaries.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/War_Guilt_Clause (235 words)

	World War I
		Explain the structure of the European alliance system on the eve of World War I. Who were the member nations of the Central Powers and of the Allied Powers?
		What were the reasons for the US going to war that President Wilson enumerated in his speech to Congress on April 2, 1917?
		How were labor unions treated during World War I? What was the economic and social impact that the war's end had on women, African-Americans, labor unions, and radicals?
	www.historyteacher.net /AHAP/Topics/AHAP_Topic21.htm (696 words)

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