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	W and Z bosons
		The W Boson is an elementary particle, having an electric charge of just ±1, a mass of 80.4110 GeV (about 80 times the proton's mass), and weak isospin of the same.
		The W and Z are accurately described by a SU(2) Gauge theory[?], but the bosons in a gauge theory must be massless.
		The combination of the SU(2) gauge theory describing the W and Z, the electromagnetic interaction, and the Higgs mechanism is known as the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model.
	www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/z_/Z_particle.html (323 words)

	Exchange Particles
		Gluons are the exchange particles for the color force between quarks, analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles.
		The W and Z particles are the massive exchange particles which are involved in the nuclear weak interaction, the weak force between electrons and neutrinos.
		The W and Z particles are called intermediate vector bosons and are the exchange particles for the weak interaction.
	hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu /hbase/particles/expar.html (1159 words)

	W and Z bosons Summary
		The second type consists of mediating particles that transmit the four fundamental forces, namely the graviton (for the gravitational force), the gluon (for the strong force), the photon (for the electromagnetic force) and the W and Z bosons (for the weak force).
		The existence of W and Z bosons was predicted as a consequence of the electroweak theory developed by Steven Weinberg, Abdus Salam, and Sheldon Glashow in the early 1970s.
		In physics, the W and Z bosons are the elementary particles that mediate the weak nuclear force.
	www.bookrags.com /W_and_Z_bosons (1776 words)

	Untitled-2 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Z, is the ghost of a Z particle who existed 50 years ago, Earth time.
		Z has been watching physicists on Earth struggle through their experimenting and theorizing in order to find a unified theory of all the four forces of the universe.
		She was a BuddhiZt Z particle and upon her attainment of Nirvana, settled back to observe the human discovery of the subatomic zoo.
	vassun.vassar.edu /~schwarz/story8.html (708 words)

	Glossary : SLAC Virtual Visitor Center
		Gluons are carrier particles for strong interactions (color force fields), photons are carrier particles of electromagnetic interactions, and the W and Z bosons are carrier particles for weak interactions.
		The particles in the jet are chiefly hadrons.
		In the latter variety, the passage of the particle is synchronized with the phase of the accelerating field.
	www2.slac.stanford.edu /vvc/glossary.html (5645 words)

	Z particle Comparison Table (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		A hypothetical elementary particle that acts as intermediary for the weak interaction, carrying its effect from one particle to another as the photon does for electromagnetic interactions and as various mesons do for the strong interactions.
		Particle that transmits the unified electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces.
		These particles were predicted by the Weinberg-Salam theory of the 1960s and later discovered in the 1980s.
	www.site.uottawa.ca:4321 /astronomy/Zparticle_table.html (97 words)

	W and Z particles - HighBeam Encyclopedia
		W and Z particles elementary particles that mediate, or carry, the fundamental force associated with weak interactions.
		The W and Z particles are quite massive for elementary particles; they are roughly 100 times as massive as the proton.
		The effects of particle bulk modulus on toughening mechanisms in rubber-modified polymers.
	www.encyclopedia.com /doc/1E1-WNZparti.html (377 words)

	Higgs Particle
		Now one of the particles was the photon, and it was already considered massless, so that was OK. But the other three particles were known as carriers of the weak force, and thirty years of experiments (at that time in the 1960s) showed that they had to have mass.
		Just remember that the Z particle and photon can be taken as an admixture of the originally proposed W~3 and B particle fields that couple to isospin and weak hypercharge respectively.
		The Z particle naturally gains a mass upon symmetry breaking, giving you a massless photon field A and the massive weak neutral current Z. The W+ and W- are alot simpler, just complex combinations of W~1 and W~2 such that W+ = W~1 - iW~2 and W- = W~1 + iW~2.
	www.physicsforums.com /showthread.php?t=7309 (992 words)

	PARTICLE PHYSICS: ON ELECTRON ACCELERATION BY PLASMA WAVES
		According to current physics, all particles in nature are either fermions or bosons, with fermions (always elementary particles) having half-integer spin (spin-states characterized by half-integer multiples of Planck's constant divided by 2pi), and bosons (all other particles) having integer spin (spin-states characterized by integer multiples of Planck's constant divided by 2pi).
		The "Z particle" is an electrically neutral carrier of the weak nuclear force that acts upon all known subatomic particles.
		The Z particle is essentially the neutral partner of the related electrically-charged "W particle".
	scienceweek.com /2004/sc041105-5.htm (1575 words)

	ScienceDaily: Researchers Pursue A Narrow Particle With Wide Implications
		The Stueckelberg Z prime particle, originally proposed by Boris Kors currently at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland and Pran Nath at Northeastern University in 2004, is so narrow that questions had been raised as to whether or not it could be detected.
		Particle physics -- Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between them.
		Subatomic particle -- A subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom: it may be elementary or composite.
	www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2006/07/060730134836.htm (1584 words)

	TIME.com: A -- Oct. 23, 1989 -- Page 1 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		These odds were calculated by observing the behavior of the Z particle, the heaviest known unit of matter.
		Zs are produced in the collision of smaller particles that have been accelerated to nearly the speed of light.
		By creating large numbers of Z particles, physicists were able to establish the energy range required to form a Z. Working backward from that energy range, they then calculated whether the laws of nature could accommodate more than the three known types of matter.
	www.time.com /time/magazine/article/0,9171,958800,00.html (775 words)

	Sandia National Laboratories - News Releases
		The accelerator, known as PBFA-Z (Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator, Z-Pinch version), produced increasingly powerful bursts of energy -- 1.0 megajoules in early October, 1.2 megajoules in mid-October, and 1.8 megajoules in November.
		The study of z pinches driven by pulsed power devices goes back about 30 years when several labs considered exploring such sources of X-rays and began theoretical and experimental research, but many limitations existed.
		Z, which reaches temperatures of the Sun, to help astronomers interpret Chandra data (November 5, 1999)
	www.sandia.gov /media/zpinch.htm (1392 words)

	The Interaction Point, September 16, 2005
		‘Precision Electroweak Measurements on the Z Resonance’ is the definitive document on the physics of Z particles at high energies intensively studied by major experiments at SLAC and CERN during the 1990s.
		The Z resonance, also called the Z pole, is the energy where Zs are directly produced.
		CERN discovered the Z particle in 1983, 16 years after theorists developing the Standard Model of particles and their interactions predicted its existence.
	www2.slac.stanford.edu /tip/2005/sep16/particle.htm (976 words)

	CERN Courier - When CERN saw the end of the - IOP Publishing - article
		Provided the antiproton intensity was sufficient, the W and Z particles could be produced through their couplings to quarks and antiquarks, and detected through their couplings to leptons as prescribed by the Weinberg-Salam-Ward model.
		In the UA2 selection for Z events, while one electron candidate again had to satisfy the same stringent requirements as in the W → eν search, the requirements on the second electron candidate were much looser, essentially a narrow electromagnetic cluster and a cluster-cluster invariant mass of more than 50 GeV.
		The discovery of the W and Z particles was a definitive vindication of the idea of gauge theories as appropriate descriptions of nature at this level, and the unified electroweak model combined with QCD became known as the Standard Model.
	www.cerncourier.com /main/article/43/4/13/1 (2889 words)

	The Telegraph - Calcutta : KnowHOW (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		the particles that are responsible for the existence of one of those forces.
		The W particle was discovered in January 1983 and the Z particle a few months later.
		Kalmus received the Rutherford Medal for his role in the discovery of the W and Z particles and the experimental verification of electro-weak unification.
	www.telegraphindia.com /1041101/asp/knowhow/story_3923565.asp (618 words)

	Quantum Teleportation
		Now, particles Z and X are at Alice and Y at Bob, but have not interacted yet.
		Particle as particles X and Z interacted, particle Y took on a state opposite that of X, which is opposite of Z, so Y has an
		Particles are enconded in quantum states and are sent to the receiver as in quantum communication.
	www.zamandayolculuk.com /cetinbal/QUANTUMTELEPORTb.htm (1352 words)

	ALR homepage
		particles transmit the weak force (radioactivity is an example of a weak force interaction) and do so with different strengths for right-handed and left-handed particles.
		The Higgs particle interacts with all types of matter and force particles, and is responsible for generating their masses.
		If the Standard Model is correct, established measurements of the Z particle mass at CERN and the top quark mass at Fermilab now allow predictions for the Higgs' mass from accurate measurements of the weak mixing angle and from other precision measurements, such as the mass of the W particle.
	www-sldnt.slac.stanford.edu /alr (1189 words)

	W and Z bosons - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The W particle is named after the weak nuclear force.
		The W boson is best known for its role in nuclear decay.
		The combination of the SU(2) gauge theory of the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the Higgs mechanism is known as the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Z_boson (1061 words)

	Carlo Rubbia Summary
		One consequence of the theory was the prediction that three new force-carrying particles, the W+, W-, and Z0 boson existed.
		The existence of these particles had been predicted in the 1960s, when Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg had independently developed an electroweak theory proposing that two fundamental forces, the electromagnetic and weak forces, are manifestations of a more fundamental natural force, and predicting the existence of W and Z particles.
		In 1971, Salam and Weinberg suggested that the neutral Z particle could be detected in "neutral currents" that would be produced by the collision of neutrinos and matter.
	www.bookrags.com /Carlo_Rubbia (2074 words)

	Researchers Pursue a Narrow Particle with Wide Implications
		Northeastern University researchers Pran Nath, Daniel Feldman and Zuowei Liu have shown that the discovery of a proposed particle, dubbed the Stueckelberg Z prime, is possible utilizing the data being collected in the CDF and DO experiments at the Fermilab Tevatron.
		While in the Standard Model particles such as the W and Z bosons gain mass by the Higgs phenomena, the new Z prime particle gains mass by the Stueckelberg mechanism proposed by the Swiss mathematician and physicist Ernst Carl Gerlach Stueckelberg in 1938.
		There has been a theory that I never heard of that posits a Z prime particle that mediates the forces that cause mass and its" so narrow, it seems to be beating a path to particles predicted by string theory.
	www.physorg.com /news73061932.html (726 words)

	CompMethPP-Z Physics-Event Displays
		Particles containing quarks, collectively known as hadrons, lose their energy mainly in the hadronic calorimeter.
		Below are examples of the different visible decays of the Z particle.
		It's a good idea to view the outline of only one detector at a time because when several are shown at once the large number of overlapping lines makes it difficult to interpret the event.
	ihp-lx2.ethz.ch /CompMethPP/zphys/evtdisplays.html (478 words)

	3D particle tracking using IDL
		The particles that interest you should be between 5 and 20 pixels in diameter, ideally, in all three dimensions.
		The top histogram is the fractional part of the X positions of the particles, the middle is Y, and the bottom is Z. The X histogram shows a dip in the middle, a possible sign of pixel biasing, although this isn't there in Y, which is a hopeful sign.
		The right pictures show the upper two problem areas, in one case a big monster particle that is identified as several overlapping particles, and in another case a slightly unusually large particle that is identified as one particle.
	www.physics.emory.edu /~weeks/idl/three.html (3093 words)

	CERN Courier - Season of Higgs and melodram - IOP Publishing - article
		CERN's 27 km LEP storage ring was built with the initial objective of making precision measurements on the Z particle (the electrically neutral carrier of the weak force discovered at CERN's proton-antiproton collider in 1983).
		This was more than enough for LEP to start seeing production of the W particle, the electrically charged companion of the Z (in electron-positron collisions the W has to be produced in oppositely charged pairs).
		The Higgs endows particles with mass, so that the photon carrier of electromagnetism is free to roam, while the weak interaction is mediated by very heavy particles which are confined to subnuclear dimensions.
	cerncourier.com /main/article/41/2/17 (811 words)

	The Small Picture
		So what we refer to as the Z particle is actually part gauge boson, and part Higgs particle, and it's this absorption of the Higgs particle that gives the Z (and the W's) its mass.
		A supersymmetric theory is a theory in which every particle I've mentioned so far has a companion particle with similar properties, but with a different spin (a property I mentioned earlier, but if you forgot, don't worry about it) and a much heavier mass.
		The particles that make up these particles are held together by a "technicolor" force that is similar to the "color," or strong force.
	webs.morningside.edu /slaven/Physics/micro/micro10.html (1390 words)

	CSPP 50101 - Final Assignment
		As an example of where this might be used is to ensure that a particle that is about to be inserted does not have the same name as a particle already in the list.
		Option 1 reads a particle, then checks to see if a particle by the same name is already in the particle list.
		This is a poor design, if you are feeling ambitious, rework the system to reject particles as soon as the identity is enterred, thus saving the user the hassle of entering in the position, velocity and mass data.
	people.cs.uchicago.edu /~jriehl/cspp50101/FinalAssignment.html (1591 words)

	Space Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The fact that uncertin values are inevitable at the subatomic level since measuring techniques disrupt the particles being measured.
		Although it exists too briefly to be directly observed, the effects of its existence may be detected.
		X Higgs bosons would have existed only during a brief period beginning 10^-35 second after the Big Bang; their decay would have prod uced an excess of matter over antimatter particles that is still evident.
	library.thinkquest.org /12272/data/Enc2b.html (465 words)

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